THE HISTORY OF GEOLOGIC RESEARCH AND MAPPING

Although the geology of the Carpathians has been the subject of systematic study and research since the advent of geologic sciences in Central and Eastern Europe, a comprehensive study of the area has been absent because of cultural, political and scientific obstacles and challenges. Its geography, morphology, geology, and tectonic evolution, have been of great interest to earth scientists, geographers and geologists for over 150 years. Until the late 1980s, however, no exhaustive work examining the entire area has so far been written. Moreover, no English language version on the geology of the Carpathian Basin had seen the light of day. The dismemberment of the Austro- Hungarian empire and political fragmentation of the Carpathians has contributed to infighting that has been hampering geological research in this region ever since the end of the First World War. The political instability and shifting borders has resulted in the study being piecemeal and subject to national and regional biases.

THE CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS

The Carpathian chain is one of the largest mountain ranges in Europe – larger than the Alps. However, until recently, it has not received the same level of interest from Western geologists who were preoccupied with the Alps. A complete study of the entire region was not conducted until the late 20th century, and the first comprehensive study in English did not appear until the late 1980s. The Carpathian Mountain occupies a key position between the Eurasian and African tectonic plates.

The Carpathians are composed of arcuate fold-mountain chain of almost semicircular shape and Mesozoic to Tertiary in age surrounding a spacious internal basin, itself studded with mountains ranges of different origins. The dualism of generic continuity of later folding movement of the peripheral mountains on the one hand and the enclosed basin are the crustal vertical movement of the interior areas explaining the geophysical characteristics and peculiarities of crustal movements and structures of the Carpathian Region.

The Carpathian Arc is a semi-circular arc of mountains about 1500-1900 km long, stretching from the Western Carpathians in Austria to the Southern Carpathians in Romania in Central Europe. The shape of the arc resembles a horseshoe-shaped unicellular organism with slight northward pitch at the southern end. The horseshoe shape dual-layered structure of the mountain complex is comprised of outer and inner belts. The Carpathian Mountains form a semi-circle creased around the Carpathian Basin — a Tertiary tectonic basin with complex geologic history (Foldvary). The dualistic nature of the two parts – mountains and basins together form a single region called the Carpathian Ecological Region.

The geologic formation of the Carpathians is complex and not within the scope of this overview. However, the process of mountain building will be looked at in contact to its impact on ecology and land-use history. Nonetheless, the geology is complex but can be summarized concisely by the preeminent Polish geologist of the 20th century, Dr. Marian Ksiazkiewicz: “The Carpathians are mountains formed by the folding of sediments laid down in a “geosyncline” which was initiated in the early period of the Mesozoic Era.” Hence, the Carpathians are old mountains, but what is important to note is the present day Carpathians were preceded by the “denudation and subsidence” of an older mountain chain from the Caledonian orogenic epoch. The folding took place in two main phases; the older toward the end of Cretaceous and younger one in the late Tertiary. The older movements affect its inner part, whereas there are no traces of them in the outer part. Conversely, the younger movements were confined to the outer part and were very weak in the inner part. As a result the Carpathian mountain chain consists of two ranges, and older one known as the Inner Carpathians and a younger one, known as the Outer Carpathians (the Flysch Carpathians). The Tatra Mountains belong to the Inner Carpathians, whereas the Beskydy belong to the Outer Carpathians.”

The width is variable, with an average range from 50-150 km, with mountains and valleys cutting transversely through it. “The great variation in width is attributable to the fact that the inner belt is more or less missing along parts of the arc. According to estimates the total area occupied by the mountain system is 200,000 km (not including Northern Montaneland). The gently sloping northern flank of the mountains in Poland reaches a maximum width of 350 km along the longitudinal plane as the mountain rear up to their highest elevation in the North Tatra.

The height and physiography topography of Carpathians is not comparable with that of the Alps. They are generally low mountains from 1000-2000 meters with exception with a scattering of higher ranges between 2000-2500 and a few peaks over 2600 m including the highest point in the Carpathians — Gerlachovsky Peak (2665 masl) in Slovakia’s High Tatra range. The Chornonora Range in the so-called Maramoros Alps of the Northeastern Carpathians has several peaks over 2200 masl.

The parent material predominant rock is Carpathian Flysh – sandstone that is generally found in the outer ring of the arc. “ The volcanic belt along the inner periphery of the Carpathians stretches form the beginning go the Western Capstans and finds at the other end of the Easter Carpathians. It does not continue along the inner north periphery of Southern Carpathians” (Foldvary).

Most of the component ranges of the Carpathian chain were richly forested and as a result, there has been an extensive history of timber exploitation for centuries that continues to this day. Some of the most productive stands of spruce-fir, European beech and other hardwoods are found in the Carpathian Mountains. The Austro-Hungarian Empire introduced the concept of scientific forest and game management in the 18th century. Native hardwoods and softwoods were replaced by artificial regeneration of monocultures of spruce and the idea plantation establishment took hold. Indeed, “one of the oldest mining and forestry academies in Europe was found in Banksá Stiavnica by the Hapsburg Empress Maria Theresa in 1763, transferred to Ödenburg after WWI.” The physiographic distribution of longitudinal, as well as transverse valleys all along the arc of the Carpathians, have led to the development of extensive networks of dams for timber transports by water ways and hydroelectric power.

The inner belt contrasts sharply with the outer belt and is sometimes considered part of the basin systems rather than the Carpathian chain and it is a basin floor that happened to get uplifted to the surface. The Carpathian Fold Mountain Chains is composed longitudinally of four main geographic sectors: the Western, the Northeastern, the Eastern, and the Southern Carpathians. Geologists often do not include the younger Southern Carpathians.

Main Physiographic Regions:

Carpathian Mountains:
• The Western Carpathians
• The Northeastern Carpathians
• The Eastern Carpathians
• The Southern Carpathians (including the Transylvania Central Mountains)

Carpathian Lowlands and Basins:
• Inner Northern Montaneland
• Transdanubia
• Great Hungarian Plain

The Transylvanian Central Mountains sometimes referred to, as the Bihar Mountain Complex or the Island Mountain of Eastern Hungary, constitutes one the largest mountain massifs in the Carpathian Region although it doesn’t reach its greatest heights. Its enigmatic nature is accentuated because its great economic and geological importance throughout history. Since the Roman times mines have operated in the region where the richest gold and silver mines of Transylvania are located. As a result of its mineral wealth, it was conquered by Emperor Trajanus in two campaigns in 107 AD and was annexed to the Roman Empire as the province of Dacia.