The One is not just Summit (omega) and not just Source (alpha), but it is Suchness- The timeless and ever-present Ground which is equally and fully present in and as every single being, high or low, ascending or descending, effluxing or refluxing.
-- Ken Wilber
An integral spirituality will recognize the universal transcendent core of the world's spiritual traditions while simultaneously embracing the multiplicity of religious practices and beliefs. It will provide an integrating framework, grounded in spiritual experience, which unites the disparate theological systems by representing each as a unique but partial view of the same infinite divine reality. Contemplation of the transcendent One develops the spiritual faculties which enable the realization of the immanence of the One in all the actual entities of the cosmos. As we recognize God in ourselves we are able to recognize God in the phenomenal world. Nature is viewed as a focus for the divine manifestation, as the medium par excellence through which that uncreated beauty reveals itself and exercises creative activity. In this awakened state, all of nature is viewed as sacred, as an expression or reflection of the splendor of the One. This realization transforms one's relation to the rest of the cosmos.
This paper defends the assertion that spiritual experience provides the base data of the spiritual quest, and that the mystics of the world have been mapping the features of the spiritual world and attempting to express these inexpressible insights in music, poetry and discourse. Interpretations of these experiences become codified into religious doctrine. "Theological doctrines start as human interpretations of individual and communal experience" (Barbour, 1990, p. 183). An intuitive sense of the unity of religious ideas inspires us to seek an integral framework which transcends and integrates the multitude of apparently incommensurate spiritual worldviews.
The observation that mysticism is substantially the same in different cultures and religions supports the view that a single, universal numinous experience underlies all the major world religions (James, 1982; Underhill, 1911; Marechal, 1927; Johnston, 1970; Pratt, 1923; Stace, 1960; Huxley, 1945; Smith, 1976; Schuon, 1975; Otto, 1960). "The numenous experience of the holy is present in virtually all cultures. People around the world report a sense of awe and wonder in the presence of powers that seem to transcend the human... the experience carries a strong conviction of a transcendent unity beyond ordinary experience" (Barbour, 1990, p. 202). This viewpoint emphasizes the unity of spiritual experience underlying the diversity of religious expressions: "Since interpretive categories (e.g. concepts, beliefs, the background set) do not enter the transcendental experience, mysticism is by and large transculturally homogenous, having a small number of 'core characteristics' that could, indeed, should be analyzed independent of any specific culturally bound mystical philosophies" (Foreman, 1990). The various religions can be seen as emerging out of this universal vision as specific instantiations customized to particular cultural environments.
A number of philosophers (Huxley, 1945; Smith, 1976; Schuon, 1975; Otto, 1960) have argued that a transcultural "Perennial Philosophy" can be grounded in this experiential base. In formulating this universal wisdom they have attempted to integrate the cumulative contemplative vision of countless individuals from many cultures and eras. Physicist and Noble laureate Erwin Schrodinger, in his groundbreaking and highly influential book "What is Life" (Schrodinger, 1967), observes that "ten years age, Aldous Huxley published a precious volume which he called 'The Perennial Philosophy', and which is an anthology from the mystics of the most various periods and the most various peoples. Open it and you will find many beautiful utterances.. You are struck by the miraculous agreement between humans of different race, different religion, knowing nothing about each other's existence, separated by centuries and millennia, and by the greatest distances that there are on our globe."
Unfortunately, the term "Perennial Philosophy" is misleading and has led to much misunderstanding and criticism of this viewpoint. Philosophers and theologians have objected that any universal philosophy cannot possibly do justice to the rich diversity of religious traditions, and are critical of perceived attempts to establish a "watered-down global religion" (Barbour, 1990; Foreman, 1990). In an attempt to clear up the confusion surrounding the term he popularized, Huxley (1993) explains that the Perennial Philosophy, in it purest form, cannot be expressed in words: "It is only in the act of contemplation, when words and even personality are transcended, that the pure state of the Perennial Philosophy can actually be known". Thus arises the confusion: the "pure" Perennial Philosophy is not a "philosophy" in any common sense of the word. Willis Harman (1998) advocates the more appropriate term "perennial wisdom". This wisdom transcends the categories of thought and is too profound to be captured by any single philosophical system- hence is compatible with a diversity of expressions . Hick (1982) emphasizes the necessity of a plurality of worldviews by asserting that the divine reality can be encountered, conceptualized, and responded to in many ways. "God has many names". Each expression of this vision is partial and culturally relative. "These different human awarenesses of the Eternal One represent different culturally conditioned perceptions of the same infinite divine reality." (p. 52) .
This viewpoint is reminiscent of the famous fable of the "blind men and the elephant". Jellaludin Rumi's rendition is particularly illuminating:
Many people were going to see an elephant which was on display in a dark house. Since seeing with the eye was impossible, each one was feeling it with the palm of his hand. One felt the trunk, saying "it's like a water pipe!" Another touched the ear: "it's like a fan!" Another felt the leg: "it's like a pillar!" Another felt it's back: "it's like a throne!" Whatever any of them heard about the elephant they understood in light of the part he had touched. Because of their diverse experiences their speech was contradictory: one called the elephant "straight" another "crooked". If the light had been turned on the differences would have disappeared. The eye of sense-perception is limited like the palm of the hand: it has no capacity to encompass the entirety... To the extent that we are able to receive unveiled light we may behold with the eye of the vast Ocean of Reality that which is now hidden from the eye of phenomena (Nicholson, 1926).
In this light we can view the diversity of expressions of the universal numenous vision as an unavoidable characteristic of sense-based knowledge. The eye of contemplation, which is trained to behold "unveiled light", is able to discern the unity that underlies the diversity of forms. Thus we can conclude that the perennialists are emphasizing the unity of the contemplative vision while their critics are emphasizing the diversity of cultural expressions of this transcendent wisdom.
An integral spirituality will recognize the universal transcendent core of the world's spiritual traditions while simultaneously embracing the multiplicity of religious practices and beliefs. It will provide an integrating framework, grounded in spiritual experience, which unites the disparate theological systems by representing each as a unique but partial view of the same infinite divine reality. There is evidence that the universality of this numenous experience is reflected in a number of transcultural core characteristics that could support an integral spiritual vision (Stace, 1960; Huxley, 1945; Smith, 1976; Schuon, 1975). Our quest for wholeness requires us to attempt a formulation of this integral vision, while acknowledging that any conceptual formulation will necessarily be an incomplete and distorted map of Reality.
Essentially all of the perennial philosophers, in seeking a framework which encompasses and integrates the widest expanse of spiritual knowledge, have chosen some form of the "great chain of being" (Lovejoy, 1964) as their foundational principle. This worldview "has, in one form or another, been the dominant official philosophy of the large part of civilized mankind through most of its history" (p. 26). In the West, its roots can be found in the teachings of Plato, and its blossoming in the teaching of Plotinus. No other philosophical or theological system has had such a profound and widespread impact on Western thinking (as Whitehead has observed, "the safest general characterization of the whole western philosophic tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato"). As the "great chain" philosophy was reaching maturity in the West around the second-third century C.E, a similar philosophy was transforming Eastern thinking through the teachings of Nagarjuna (Wilber, 1995, p. 639). For the purposes of this paper we use the term "perennial wisdom tradition" to refer to the integral core of these great nondual philosophies which emerged through the teachings of Plato/Plotinus in the West and Nagarjuna in the East. This core philosophy can be expressed as a dynamic balance between two complementary expressions of Spirit: the "descent" of the One into the world of the many (manifestation/immanence), and the "ascent" from the many to the One (remembrance/transcendance).
The descent has been described by Huxley (1993): "The phenomenal world of matter and of individual consciousness- the world of things and animals and men and even gods- is the manifestation of a Divine Ground within which all partial realities have their being, and apart from which they would be nonexistent". As Lovejoy puts it, "a timeless and incorporeal One became the ground as well as the dynamic source of the existence of a temporal and material and extremely multiple and variegated universe" (Lovejoy, 1964, p. 49). In this view, the phenomenal world emerges continually from a single source, an Absolute, which is variously referred to as Godhead, Brahman, Allah, Tao, Buddha Nature, Original Mind, or Emptiness (Sunyata). Hence all matter, all beings, all of the universe is an incarnation/reflection/child of this one consciousness, this one ocean of being, in diverse forms and aggregates. This is the Descending path, the path of creation spirituality, of "horizontal transcendence" (Goodenough, 2001), the exuberant embrace of the phenomenal world as a manifestation of the divine plenitude. In Wilber's words, this path "is a descent of the One into the world of the Many, a movement which actually creates the world of the Many, blesses the Many, and confers Goodness on all of it: Spirit immanent in the world" (Wilber, 1995, p. 320). Not only did the eternal One produce all the forms of the cosmos, but in so doing it manifested properties of its own nature which add to its glory. The existence of the world of phenomena was the very consummation of the perfection of the One (Lovejoy, 1964, p. 53). Plato calls the entire manifest world "a visible, sensible God".
The ascent has been described by Huxley (1993): "Human beings are capable not merely of knowing about the Divine Ground by inference; they can also realize its existence by a direct intuition, superior to discursive reasoning. This immediate knowledge unites the knower with that which is known." This is the Ascending path, which finds release from the suffering and turmoil of the temporal world in contemplative absorption in the eternal One. It is alignment with the one being which constitutes the process of awakening, which is variously referred to as enlightenment, liberation, salvation, or spiritual evolution. In Wilber's words, this path is the "movement of return or ascent from the Many to the One, a process of remembering or recollecting the Good: Spirit transcendent to the world" (Wilber, 1995, p. 320). As Lovejoy puts it, this "Divine Ground" (Plato's "Good") is "the universal object of desire, that which draws all souls toward itself; and the chief good for man even in this life is nothing but the contemplation of this absolute or essential Good" (Lovejoy, 1964, p. 45).
In the perennial wisdom tradition, the ascending and descending paths are united in the Divine Ground. In the "Great Circle of Life", contemplation of the transcendent One (the Ascending path) develops the spiritual faculties which enable the realization of the immanence of the One in all the actual entities of the cosmos (the Descending path). The way up is the way down: vertical transcendence (as a path of spiritual awakening, not a metaphysical system) begets horizontal transcendence (i.e. the realization of the fundamental sacredness of the cosmos). As we recognize God in ourselves we are able to recognize God in the phenomenal world. In the words of Ken Wilber (1995, p. 347), the One "is not just Summit (omega) and not just Source (alpha), but it is Suchness- The timeless and ever-present Ground which is equally and fully present in and as every single being, high or low, ascending or descending, effluxing or refluxing".
The Ascending path is the path of "vertical transcendence" (Goodenough, 2001), the path of spiritual awakening which culminates in union with God- the mystical experience of unity. The process of spiritual awakening generally requires an ardent and sincere devotion to the spiritual path, which involves various spiritual disciplines. The outer aspect of spiritual discipline entails the cultivation of virtue in thought and action through the practice of generosity, kindness, truthfulness, loving service, etc. The outer practice is balanced and sustained by the inner practices - meditation, yoga, contemplative prayer, "Jesus prayer", sacraments, etc. - which allow the practitioner to "touch the divine, the exquisite emptiness, or the mystery and learn to bring that into one's life" (Kornfeld, 1984).
Meditation/contemplation is the process of releasing and deconstructing the illusory identifications that keep us attached to our false sense of self, the mental habits of ego-centered identification that separate us from the wellspring of our being. Pir Vilayat Inayat Khan (1999) remarks: "meditation consists in conducting consciousness beyond the point where it is the consciousness of a finite body or a finite mind, transferring the focus from level to level without losing its continuity or form". This process of ever widening identification progressively encompasses an increasingly profound expanse of the cosmos. It must be emphasized that this shift is not simply conceptual, it is grounded in direct, unmediated perception. In the words of Thomas Keatingi (1999, p. 94-95), "the inner dynamism of contemplative prayer leads naturally to the transformation of your whole personality. Its purpose is not limited to your moral improvement. It brings about a change in your way of perceiving and responding to reality. This process involves a structural change of consciousness." This transformation of consciousness is accompanied by a "shift in perspective from the personal point of view to the Divine point of view", which Inayat Khan (1999) calls "thinking like the Universe". As expressed by the Sufis, we are "a continuum of consciousness ranging from the boundless, transpersonal dimension that is coextensive with all others to the 'discrete entity' that makes up our unique individuality" (Inayat Khan 1999).
Most humans spend their lives trapped in their personal vantage point, or "false self" (Keating, 1999). Gautama Buddha, in particular, described in detail the mental processes by which we construct the personal "I" concept, our ego-based sense of personal identity (Foreman, 1999, pp. 81-92). Buddha taught that our illusory identifications with our individuality, our personality, or our thoughts, which are simply transient events within the field of (eternal) consciousness, are the root of the ignorance that holds us in bondage. Once cleansed of all identifications, Buddha instructs his followers to "Take refuge in the Self"ii, referring to the Atman of the Hindu Upanishads: the immortal, beatific inner Self that is one and the same in all beings. Buddha also echoes the Hindu teaching that Atman, fully unveiled, is none other than Brahman (the Source of all existence)iii (Coomaraswamy 1943). The Christian expression of this teaching is voiced by Fr. Thomas Keating: "Our basic core of goodness is our true Self. It's center of gravity is God. ? God and our true Self are not separate. Though we are not God, God and our true Self are the same thing" (Keating, 1999).
According to contemplatives, the unmediated consciousness that is developed in the meditation process can deepen into a perception of "that which transpires behind that which appears". It opens up the spiritual senses, the "eye of the Spirit", enabling the perception of realities which are hidden from the "eye of the flesh" (Wilber 1983). In the words of Sri Aurobindo (1983), "The one means that we have available in our mentality ( for attaining to universal truth ) is an extension of that form of knowledge by identity which gives us the awareness of our own existence ( i.e. the self-awareness upon which the knowledge of the contents of the self is based ). If then we can extend our faculty of mental self-awareness to awareness of the Self beyond and outside us (Atman or Brahman of the Upanishads) we may become possessors in experience of the truths which form the contents of the Atman or Brahman in the universe". In the Gospel of Thomas (Saying 17), Jesus says, "I will give you what no eye has seen, what no ear has heard, what no hand has touched, and what has never occurred to the human mind." The sufi mystic Jellaludin Rumi explains that "the eye of sense-perception is limited like the palm of the hand: it has no capacity to encompass the entirety... To the extent that we are able to receive unveiled light we may behold with the eye of the vast Ocean of Reality that which is now hidden from the eye of phenomena." (Nicholson, 1926)
As the spiritual faculties awaken, the contemplative begins to become aware of the "the eternal splendor of the One shining through the material phenomena". The seeker begins to experience a numenous presence underlying, enfolding, and shining through the forms of the cosmos. Physicist and Nobel laureate E. Schrodinger (1967) illustrates this vision by quoting the sufi mystic Aziz Nasafi: “The spiritual world is one single spirit who stands like unto a light behind the bodily world and who, when any single creature comes into being, shine through it like a window. According to the kind or size of the window less or more light enters the world. The light itself however remains unchanged”. Emerson explains that this “light” is none other then the observer or witness within each of us: “All goes to show that the soul in man is not a faculty, but a light; is not the intellect or the will, but the master of the intellect and the will; is the background of our being, in which they lie, -an immensity not possessed and that cannot be possessed. From within or from behind, a light shines through us upon things and makes us aware that we [false self] are nothing, but the light [true Self] is everything” (Emerson, 1969, p. 96). This light which shines through us is the “Soul of the whole; the wise silence; the universal beauty, to which each part and particle is equally related” (p. 95). This vision of the eternal One shining through us and through all of Nature is the initial (but still partial) realization of the (healthy, non-fractured) Descending Path.
Characteristic attributes of this state of awakened consciousness are wonder and "bewilderment". In a stage of contemplative prayer that he called "Pure Prayer," Egyptian mystic Evagrius says, "Prayer ceases, and one becomes astonished, is caught up in wonder at the Light of God? The person who has entered the Place of the Mysteries remains in wonder at them, and this is the true prayer which opens the Door to the Treasures of God." (Ponticus, 1980). Jellaludin Rumi describes this state of bewilderment (Nicholson, 1926: V:3244-3250):
It's as when a bird perches on your head,
and your soul trembles for fear of its flitting,
so you don't dare to stir lest that beautiful bird take to the air.
You dare not breathe, you suppress a cough,
lest that presence should slip away;
and should anyone speak sweet or sour words to you,
you lay a finger to your lips, meaning "Hush!"
Bewilderment is like that bird: it makes you silent;
it puts the lid on the kettle and fills you with the boiling of love.
Contemplation of nature facilitates the emergence of this wonder. Pope John Paul II, in his encyclical "Fides et Ratio", states, "Driven by the desire to discover the ultimate truth of existence, human beings seek to acquire those universal elements of knowledge that enable them to advance in their own self realization. These fundamental elements of knowledge spring from the wonder awakened in them by contemplation of creation."
Werner Heisenberg, in his essay "Science and the Beautiful" (Heisenberg, 1974; Wilber 1984), discusses the role of this experience of wonder in scientific creativity, and refers to Plotinus' definition of beauty as "the eternal splendor of the One shining through the material phenomena". A similar viewpoint is found in the Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994, v. 341, 339): "The beauty of creation reflects the infinite beauty of the Creator. Each creature possesses its own particular goodness and perfection. Each of the various creatures, willed in it's own being, reflects in it's own way a ray of God's infinite wisdom and goodness." To quote the Koran (2,115) "Wheresoever you turn, there is the face of God". Hazrat Inayat Kahn (1999), who is responsible for introducing Sufism to the west, has explained that "there is no greater scripture than Nature, for Nature is Life itself. Nature in its different aspects is the materialization of that light which is called the divine Spirit."
Sri Aurobindo (1983) explains that as our spiritual faculties awaken, "Matter reveals itself to the realizing thought and to the subtilised senses as the figure and body of Spirit, Spirit in its self-formative extension. Spirit reveals itself through the same consenting agents as the soul, the truth, the essence of Matter. Both admit and confess each as divine, real, and essentially one. Mind and life are disclosed in that illumination as at once figures and instruments of the Supreme Conscious Being by which It extends and houses Itself in material form and in that form unveils Itself to Its multiple centers of consciousness. Mind attains its self-fulfillment when it becomes a pure mirror of the Truth of Being which expresses itself in the symbols of the universe; Life, when it consciously lends its energies to the perfect self-figuration of the Divine in ever-new forms and activities of the universal existence".
Pir Vilayat Inayat Kahn (1999) illustrates these ideas with an example: Imagine that we are moved by the beauty of a tree. The physical eye takes in its physical form. "While the beauty of this tree depends upon its physical form, still, it has an essential reality of its own which is its meaningfulness". (p. 29). The knowing of the mind says "this tree is beautiful". The knowing of the soul says "how wonderful to see the divine beauty manifesting through this tree". The eye of the soul is able to let go of the physical form while maintaining consciousness of the beauty that manifested through the form, because this beauty is an attribute of the Source of all, the wellspring in the depth of our being. Nature is viewed as a focus for the divine manifestation, as the medium par excellence through which that uncreated beauty reveals itself and exercises creative activity.
The integration of the Ascending and Descending paths, which is grounded in contemplative insight, proved impossible to maintain as the perennial wisdom tradition was filtered through the various religious systems of the West, which tended to shift the emphasis from spiritual practice and direct experience to faith and dogma. As may be expected, the integral wholeness of the perennial wisdom was fractured - the complementary paths were split - producing a pair of incommensurate worldviews. Lovejoy recounts the story of this split, which saddled the West with two absolutely incompatible Gods: "There was no way in which the flight from the Many to the One, the quest of a perfection defined wholly in terms of contrast with the created world, could be effectively harmonized with the imitation of a Goodness that delights in diversity and manifests itself in the emanation of the Many out of the One" (Lovejoy, 1964, p. 84; Wilber, 1995, p. 363). Out of this fracture emerged the Sensate and Ideational worldviews.
The Ideational worldview of Sorokin (1941, 1957) can be identified as the fractured Ascending path (divorced from the Descending path), which produces an "otherworldly" religion that seeks release from the suffering and turmoil of the temporal world in a spiritual realm beyond time and space. Without the Descending Path, which enables the seeker to see his or her goal reflected in all the forms of the cosmos, it results in an attempt to rise above "this world" as the abode of evil and temptation. It is the path of asceticism and of world-denial, which requires withdrawal from the senses, from the body, from the earth, and from the physical passions. It is an introverted worldview, in which wisdom is obtained primarily through inner revelation- the data of the physical senses is regarded with distrust. The natural world is looked upon with pessimism and a degree of contempt, as a temptation and a distraction from the "imitatio Deo".
The Sensate worldview of Sorokin (1941, 1957) can be identified the fractured Descending path (divorced from the Ascending path), which results in a "this-worldly" religion, which summons men and women to embrace the goodness of the phenomenal world in all its diversity of forms. Without the Ascending path - which enables the realization of the Divine Ground within which all phenomena have their being - it leads to a horizontal embrace of the most superficial aspect of phenomena, ignoring the depth of divinity inherent in each form. It denies the possibility of absolute truth, beauty, or ethics. It is the path of materialism, of relativism, and of positivism, which tends to degenerate into hedonism and nihilism. It is an extroverted worldview which regards revelatory knowledge as fantasy or delusion and believes in "nothing more" then that which can be grasped by the physical senses.
The logical mind considers these two paths -representing the transcendent and immanent aspects of Being- to be incommensurate. As with the multitude of other complementary opposites which permeate all aspects of life, it tends to fix itself on a single side of the dichotomy or swing like a pendulum from one side to the other. Sorokin (1941) has demonstrated that throughout recorded history Western culture has been oscillating between phases dominated by one or the other of these worldviews. Their opposition cannot be logically reconciled, but it can be transcended: "The pairs of opposites? put tension into the world, a tension which sharpens man's sensitivity and increases his self-awareness? They provoke, stimulate, and sharpen the higher human faculties? They are refractory to mere logic and discursive reason, and constitute, so to speak a strain and stretch apparatus to develop the Whole Man, and that means to develop man's supralogical faculties. All traditional cultures have seen life as a school and have recognized, in one way or another, the essentiality of this teaching force" (Schumacher, 1978, pp. 126-128). As expressed by physicist David Bohm, "the creative tension invoked by simultaneously holding apparently contradicting worldviews incites the mind to higher levels of thinking" (Bohm & Peat, p.247).
In light of this analysis, we can view Sorokin's Idealistic worldview - which representing the harmonious blending of the Sensate and Ideational, the Ascending and the Descending - as an expression of the perennial wisdom. We can view the history of western culture as a fluctuation between the two poles of the perennial wisdom tradition: a transcendent Good divorced from the world, and an immanent goodness stripped of its divinity. Sorokin (1941) has asserted that the Idealistic phase, which may arise during the transition between Sensate and Ideational phases, represents the most profound blossoming of human culture in the harmonious balance of opposites- inner and outer, material and spiritual, relative and absolute. He has demonstrated that the current world crisis displays all the symptoms of a cultural transition from Sensate to Ideational phases. We may therefore anticipate the emergence of an Idealistic sub-culture, and, as expected, signs of this emergence can be found in many current trends in Western culture (Harman, 1998; Capra, 1982). These signs including the shift from a materialist to an idealist worldview in modern physics, the revival of the perennial wisdom tradition in philosophy and theology, and the renewal of interest in the contemplation dimension of the world religions in mainstream society.
This cultural transition can be viewed as an answer to the cry of humanity in the face of the global crisis. It represents the healing and rebalancing of our fragmented worldview by restoring the balance between the Ascending and Descending paths- between the inner and outer, the spiritual and material, the mystical and the scientific. The healing of the (Sensate) cultural deterioration into extreme relativism, hedonism, and nihilism - which Western culture has cycled through several times within recorded history (Sorokin 1941) - occurs in the completion of the cultural cycle, i.e. the reemergence of the complementary phase with the restoration of balance. The Descending path must be rebalanced by the revival of the Ascending path. Extreme nihilism, relativism, and hedonism are healed by the profound meaningfulness which emerges from the experience of the Divine Ground of existence. The reenchantment of the world requires a revival of the Ascending path of God realization, not as an abstract speculation but as a living Reality- a direct transforming experience of Divinity.
In this awakened state, all of nature is viewed as sacred, as an expression or reflection of the splendor of the One. This realization transforms one's relation to the rest of the cosmos. Indeed, in light of the perennial wisdom tradition, our perception of connectedness, of our integral place in the web of life, emerges as an attribute of our connection with the eternal, beatific Source of all existence. It is rooted in a direct, unmediated vision of the cosmos that transcends our culture, our concepts and opinions, and our conditioning.
i Thomas Keating, a Cistercian abbot who was commissioned by pope John Paul II to facilitate the revival of the Christian contemplative tradition, is the founder of the Contemplative Outreach organization.
ii Ananda Coomaraswamy's translation of the Buddhist scripture Samjutta Nikaya III.143; in (Coomaraswamy, 1943)
iii ibid: Samjutta Nikaya III.83,84