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References

This page is a compilation of useful scientific references related to storm water. Please send a note if you know of other important publications that should be mentioned here.

Breck Bowden - June 2006
Two interesting papers on nutrient dynamics associated with raingardens. The points in these papers are that in the early post-construction phases (not strongly emphasized in the papers), rain gardens are helpful in retaining water, less helpful in retaining TN, and actually produce total P. I'm not surprised at these findings really. "Sandy loamy" soils used to construct these rain gardens, have a lot of organic N and P in them. When disturbed (during construction) it can take some time for them to settle down. I note in the WASP paper that the TP trajectory was steadily decreasing. Given 2-3 years, it would be interesting to see how these systems perform. What I think Dietz and Clausen observed was initial - and hopefully transient - construction effects. In other work I've done on biosolids, you can dramatically control the N and P retention of "constructed" soils by playing with the C:N:P ratios of the materials (e.g., adding sawdust or newspaper clippings). Still... the points made by Dietz and Clausen are worth pondering as we discuss the efficacy of rain gardens with stakeholders.

Dietz&Clausen 1      Dietz&Clausen 2

Literature Review -- Urban Streams

Breck Bowden - 6 Oct 2005

Alberti M. 2005. The effects of urban patterns on ecosystem function. International Regional Science Review, 28:168-192.
Abstract: Urban ecological systems are characterized by complex interactions among social, economic, institutional, and environmental variables. These interactions generate complex human-dominated landscapes, which significantly influence the functioning of local and global earth ecosystems and the services they provide to humans and other life on earth. Urban development fragments, isolates, and degrades natural habitats; simplifies and homogenizes species composition; disrupts hydrological systems; and modifies energy flow, and nutrient cycling. Urban areas also appropriate a large share of earth's carrying capacity front other regions in terms of resource input and waste sinks. Change in ecological conditions that result from human actions in urban areas ultimately affect human health and well-being. In this article, the author reviews the empirical evidence on the effects that patterns of urban development have on ecosystem function. Urban development affects the spatial heterogeneity of the landscape (i.e., pattern of variation in land cover) and spread of disturbance (i.e., invasive species). The author proposes that alternative urban patterns generate differential ecological effects. The review; reveals that the interactions between urban development patterns and ecosystem dynamics are still poorly understood. The author draws on an empirical study of the Puget Sound metropolitan region currently developed at the University of Washington to propose directions for future empirical research that can inform strategies to minimize urban impacts on ecosystems

Albright M. 2005. Changes in water quality in an urban stream following the use of organically derived deicing products. Lake and Reservoir Management, 21:119-124.
Abstract: Willow Brook receives runoff from Cooperstown, NY and flows into Otsego Lake, a phosphorus limited, mesotrophic waterbody. Between 1992 and 1998, the Village of Cooperstown's winter road management policy included plowing and applying abrasives (particulate material intended to increase traction) mixed with enough salt to minimize clumping. Between 1998 and 2002, Ice Ban Magic (TM) and Magic Minus Zero (TM), both organic deicers mixed with magnesium chloride, were applied experimentally in conjunction with abrasives and salt. During the winter of 2002/2003, road treatment consisted solely of applications of salt which had been treated with Magic Minus Zero (TM). Precipitation-based monitoring on Willow Brook conducted between 1991 and 2003 revealed significant declines in the export of total phosphorus, despite elevated phosphorus levels in Ice Ban Magic (TM) and Magic Minus Zero (TM), and suspended sediment as the volume of abrasives applied to roads was reduced. Chloride levels are increasing, however. The implicit trade-offs between potential pollutants and the cost of road management in cold climates are acknowledged for management of transportation safety

Baker E. A., K. E. Wehrly, P. W. Seelbach, L. Wang, M. J. Wiley, and T. Simon. 2005. A multimetric assessment of stream condition in the northern lakes and forests ecoregion using spatially explicit statistical Modeling and regional normalization. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 134:697-710.
Abstract: We sampled fish communities, water temperature, water chemistry, physical habitat, and catchment characteristics for 94 stream sites selected randomly throughout the Northern Lakes and Forests ecoregion and used those data to explicitly model reference conditions and assess ecological stream condition at each site via a regional normalization framework. The streams we sampled were first order through fourth order, and the catchments ranged from 0.9 to 458 km(2). We developed multiple linear regression (MLR) models that predicted fish community metrics, water chemistry characteristics, and local physical habitat from catchment characteristics; we used these models to compare existing conditions with the conditions that would be expected based on the regression models. Our results indicated that the fish communities were relatively unimpaired because the catchment variables associated with human-induced land use change were important in only 1 of the 10 fish metric models. Agricultural land use was a significant variable in the MLR equation for species of Lepomis (sunfish). Agricultural land use and urban land use were both significant variables in all of the MLR models predicting water chemistry variables; urban land use was a significant variable in the MLR model predicting the percent coverage of all instream cover types. Regional normalization indicated that none of the sites were impaired based on fish community attributes. However, our analysis based on water chemistry metrics indicated that 22-35% of the sites were impaired and that, based on physical habitat, 6-14% of the sites were impaired. A comparison with other published studies of the ecoregion suggested that the regional normalization process correctly characterized stream condition

Beighley R. E., T. Dunne, and J. M. Melack. 2005. Understanding and modeling basin hydrology: interpreting the hydrogeological signature. Hydrological Processes, 19:1333-1353.
Abstract: Basin landscapes possess an identifiable spatial structure, fashioned by climate, geology and land use, that affects their hydrologic response. This structure defines a basin's hydrogeological signature and corresponding patterns of runoff and stream chemistry. Interpreting this signature expresses a fundamental understanding of basin hydrology in terms of the dominant hydrologic components: surface, interflow and groundwater runoff. Using spatial analysis techniques, spatially distributed watershed characteristics and measurements of rainfall and runoff, we present an approach for modelling basin hydrology that integrates hydrogeological interpretation and hydrologic response unit concepts, applicable to both new and existing rainfall-runoff models. The benefits of our modelling approach are a clearly defined distribution of dominant runoff form and behaviour, which is useful for interpreting functions of runoff in the recruitment and transport of sediment and other contaminants, and limited over-parameterization. Our methods are illustrated in a case study focused on four watersheds (24 to 50 km(2)) draining the southem coast of California for the period October 1988 though to September 2002. Based on our hydrogeological interpretation, we present a new rainfall-runoff model developed to simulate both surface and subsurface runoff, where surface runoff is from either urban or rural surfaces and subsurface runoff is either interflow from steep shallow soils or groundwater from bedrock and coarse-textured fan deposits. Our assertions and model results are supported using streamflow data from seven US Geological Survey stream gauges and measured stream silica concentrations from two Santa Barbara Channel-Long Term Ecological Research Project sampling sites. Copyright (c) 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Blakely T. J. and J. S. Harding. 2005. Longitudinal patterns in benthic communities in an urban stream under restoration. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 39:17-28.
Abstract: Okeover Stream, on the University of Canterbury campus in Christchurch, New Zealand, has been the subject of restoration efforts since 1998. Our study focused on quantifying the response of this urban stream to current restoration efforts. Initially, physico-chemical conditions and biological communities at three sites along the Okeover Stream were compared with three physically similar sites on each of nearby Waimairi Stream and Avon River. General physical and chemical parameters were similar in all streams with circum-neutral pH, specific conductivity ranging from 167 to 173 μ S/cm, dissolved oxygen ranging from 9.0 to 9.2 mg/litre, low turbidity, and similar hydrological conditions. However, analysis of heavy metals in the sediment showed mean lead (Pb) concentrations in Okeover and Waimairi Streams exceeded ANZECC ISQG-low trigger values (86.9 and 83.7 mg/kg, respectively), whereas Avon River sediment Pb levels (27.3 mg/ kg) were below trigger values. Benthic taxonomic richness did not differ significantly among the three streams. However, Okeover Stream community was dominated by the amphipod Paracalliope fluviatilis, whereas in Waimairi Stream and Avon River the gastropod snails Potamopyrgus antipodarum and Physella acuta were the dominant benthic fauna. A further assessment made at six sites along 1200 in of Okeover Stream showed no distinct longitudinal patterns in physical or chemical conditions, but there was a strong pattern in benthic macroinvertebrate communities. Taxonomic richness and caddisfly diversity increased downstream, with twice as many taxa at the most downstream site than the uppermost sampling site. In upper reaches, copper (Cu), Pb, and zinc (Zn) concentrations in sediments all exceeded ANZECC ISQG-low trigger values. Despite ongoing restoration efforts in Okeover Stream, sedimentation, the presence of high heavy metal concentrations, intermittent flows in headwaters, and possible barriers to adult recolonisation seem to be having a continuing negative impact on benthic communities, especially in the headwaters

Booth D. B. 2005. Challenges and prospects for restoring urban streams: a perspective from the Pacific Northwest of North America. Journal of the North American Benthological Society, 24:724-737.
Abstract: Undoing harm caused by catchment urbanization on stream channels and their resident biota is challenging because of the range of stressors in this environment. One primary way in which urbanization degrades biological conditions is by changing flow patterns; thus, reestablishing natural flow regimes in urban streams demands particular attention if restoration is to have a chance for success. Enhancement efforts in urban streams typically are limited to rehabilitating channel morphology and riparian habitat, but such physical improvements alone do not address all factors affecting biotic health. Some habitat-forming processes such as the delivery of woody debris or sediment may be amenable to partial restoration, even in highly disturbed streams, and they constitute obvious high-priority actions. There is no evidence to suggest, however, that improving nonhydrologic factors can fully mitigate hydrologic consequences of urban development. In the absence of effective hydrologic mitigation, appropriate short-term rehabilitation objectives for urban channels should be to 1) eliminate point sources of pollution, 2) reconstruct physical channel elements to resemble equivalent undisturbed channels, and 3) provide habitat for self-sustaining biotic communities, even if those communities depart significantly from predisturbance conditions. Long-term improvement of stream conditions is not feasible under typical urban constraints, so large sums of money should not be spent on unrealistic or unreachable targets for stream rehabilitation. However, such a strategy should not be an excuse to preclude potential future gains by taking irreversible present-day development or rehabilitative actions

Brabec E., S. Schulte, and P. L. Richards. 2002. Impervious surfaces and water quality: A review of current literature and its implications for watershed planning. Journal of Planning Literature, 16:499-514.
Abstract: Impervious surfaces have for many years been recognized as an indicator of the intensity of the urban environment and, with the advent of urban sprawl, they have become a key issue in habitat health. Although a considerable amount of research has been done to define impervious thresholds for water quality degradation, there are a number of flaws in the assumptions and methodologies used. Given refinement of the methodology, accurate and usable parameters for preventative watershed planning can be developed, which include impervious surface thresholds and a balance between pervious and impervious surfaces within a watershed

Brett M. T., S. E. Mueller, and G. B. Arhonditsis. 2005. A daily time series analysis of stream water phosphorus concentrations along an urban to forest gradient. Environmental Management, 35:56-71.
Abstract: During a 1-year period, we sampled stream water total phosphorus (TP) concentrations daily and soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) concentrations weekly in four Seattle area streams spanning a gradient of forested to urban-dominated land cover. The objective of this study was to develop time series models describing stream water phosphorus concentration dependence on seasonal variation in stream base flows, short-term flow fluctuations, antecedent flow conditions, and rainfall. Stream water SRP concentrations varied on average by +/-18% or +/-5.7 mu g/L from one week to another, whereas TP varied +/-48% or +/-32.5 mu g/L from one week to another. On average, SRP constituted about 47% of TP. Stream water SRP concentrations followed a simple sine-wave annual cycle with high concentrations during the low-flow summer period and low concentrations during the high-flow winter period in three of the four study sites. These trends are probably due to seasonal variation in the relative contributions of groundwater and subsurface flows to stream flow. In forested Issaquah Creek, SRP concentrations were relatively constant throughout the year except during the fall, when a major salmon spawning run occurred in the stream and SRP concentrations increased markedly. Stream water SRP concentrations were statistically unrelated to short-term flow fluctuations, antecedent flow conditions, or rainfall in each of the study streams. Stream water TP concentrations are highly variable and strongly influenced by short-term flow fluctuations. Each of the processes assessed had statistically significant correlations with TP concentrations, with seasonal base flow being the strongest, followed by antecedent flow conditions, short-term flow fluctuations, and rainfall. Times series models for each individual stream were able to predict similar to 70% of the variability in the SRP annual cycle in three of the four streams (r(2) = 0.57-0.81), whereas individual TP models explained similar to 50% of the annual cycle in all streams (r(2) = 0.39-0.59). Overall, time series models for SRP and TP dynamics explained 82% and 76% of the variability for these variables, respectively. Our results indicate that SRP, the most biologically available and therefore most important phosphorus fraction, has simpler and easier-to-predict seasonal and weekly dynamics

Brett M. T., G. B. Arhonditsis, S. E. Mueller, D. M. Hartley, J. D. Frodge, and D. E. Funke. 2005. Non-point-source impacts on stream nutrient concentrations along a forest to urban gradient. Environmental Management, 35:330-342.
Abstract: We conducted statistical analyses of a 10-year record of stream nutrient and sediment concentrations for 17 streams in the greater Seattle region to determine the impact of urban non-point-source pollutants on stream water quality. These catchments are dominated by either urban (22-87%) or forest (6-73%) land cover, with no major nutrient point sources, Stream water phosphorus concentrations were moderately strongly (r(2) = 0,58) correlated with catchment land-cover type, whereas nitrogen concentrations were weakly (r2 = 0,19) and nonsignificantly (at alpha < 0.05) correlated with land cover, The most urban streams had, on average, 95% higher total phosphorus (TP) and 122% higher soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) and 71% higher turbidity than the most forested streams, Nitrate (NO3), ammonium (NH4), and total suspended solids (TSS) concentrations did not vary significantly with land cover, These results suggest that urbanization markedly increased stream phosphorus concentrations and modestly increased nitrogen concentrations. However, nutrient concentrations in Seattle region urban streams are significantly less than those previously reported for agricultural area streams

Carle M. V., P. N. Halpin, and C. A. Stow. 2005. Patterns of watershed urbanization and impacts on water quality. Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 41:693-708.
Abstract: Urban runoff contributes to nonpoint source pollution, but there is little understanding of the way that pattern and extent of urbanization contributes to this problem. Indicators of type and density of urbanization and access to municipal services were examined in six urban watersheds in Durham, North Carolina. Principal components analysis (PCA) was used to identify patterns in the distribution of these variables across the urban landscape. While spatial variation in urban environments is not perfectly captured by any one variable, the results suggest that most of the variation can be explained using several variables related to the extent and distribution of urban development. Multiple linear regression models were fit to relate these urbanization indicators to total phosphorus, total kjeldahl nitrogen, total suspended solids, and fecal coliforms. Development density was correlated to decreased water quality in each of the models. Indicators of urbanization type such as the house age, amount of contiguous impervious surface, and stormwater connectivity explained additional variation. In the nutrient models, access to city services was also an important factor. The results indicate that while urbanization density is important in predicting water quality, indicators of urbanization type and access to city services help explain additional variation in the models

Carroll G. D. and C. R. Jackson. 2005. "Urbanization influences on aquatic communities in northeastern Illinois streams," by Faith A. Fitzpatrick, Mitchell A. Harris, Terri L. Arnold, and Kevin D. Richards - Reply to discussion. Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 41:221-222.

Carroll G. D. and C. R. Jackson. 2005. "Urbanization influences on aquatic communities in northeastern Illinois streams," by Faith A. Fitzpatrick, Mitchell A. Harris, Terri L. Arnold, and Kevin D. Richards. Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 41:219-220.

Chin A. and K. J. Gregory. 2005. Managing urban river channel adjustments. Geomorphology, 69:28-45.
Abstract: In managing river channels, awareness is increasing to acknowledge spatial patterns of channel adjustments, to adopt a holistic catchment perspective, to progress from hard to softer engineering methods, and to utilize a geomorphological approach. However, specific methods for analyzing urban channels have not been related to a management framework. Using Fountain Hills, AZ, as an example of an urbanizing area, this paper develops a dynamic approach for urban river channels that analyzes variations in channel adjustments in a spatial context. The approach requires methods for delineating the drainage network, for dividing the network into channel segments in the area investigated according to road crossings, and for categorizing and characterizing channel segments. Using stream channel hazards as a basis for characterizing channel segments, together with consideration of community views, this approach provides a potential framework for management as illustrated provisionally by indicating the most significant hazards that require management and then suggesting possible management options. (c) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved

Feminella J. W. and C. J. Walsh. 2005. Urbanization and stream ecology: an introduction to the series. Journal of the North American Benthological Society, 24:585-587.

Finkenbine J. K., J. W. Atwater, and D. S. Mavinic. 2000. Stream health after urbanization. Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 36:1149-1160.
Abstract: Urban development has compromised the quality of physical elements of fish habitat in low-order spawning and rearing streams. In order to identify where priorities should lie in stream rehabilitation, field surveys of a number of streams were conducted near Vancouver, British Columbia. All of the streams were located in watersheds which were urbanized approximately 20 years earlier. The study watersheds ranged from 5 to 77 percent total impervious area (percent TIA). The urban streambeds were found to have less fine material and slightly higher values of intragravel dissolved oxygen than in rural streams. This improved gravel quality is attributed to the higher peak flows generated by impervious areas, and the reduced recruitment of Fine material in the urban watersheds. Summer base flow was uniformly low when imperviousness was above 40 percent, evidenced by a decrease in velocity rather than water depth. Large woody debris (LWD) was scarce in all streams with > 20 percent TIA. A healthy buffer zone and abundant LWD were found to stabilize streambanks. The introduction of LWD is considered the most important strategy for stream rehabilitation. Stormwater detention ponds, in contrast, are concluded to have few hydrological benefits if constructed after a stream has reached its urban equilibrium

Fitzpatrick F. A., M. A. Harris, T. L. Arnold, and K. D. Richards. 2004. Urbanization influences on aquatic communities in northeastern Illinois streams. Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 40:461-475.
Abstract: Biotic indices and sediment trace element concentrations for 43 streams in northeastern Illinois (Chicago area) from the 1980s and 1990s were examined along an agricultural to urban land cover gradient to explore the relations among biotic integrity, sediment chemistry, and urbanization. The Illinois fish Alternative Index of Biotic Integrity (AIBI) ranged from poor to excellent in agricultural/rural streams, but streams with more than 10 percent watershed urban land (about 500 people/mi(2)) had fair or poor index scores. A macroinvertebrate index (MBI) showed similar trends. A qualitative habitat index (PIBI) did not correlate to either urban indicator. The AIBI and MBI correlated with urban associated sediment trace element concentrations. Elevated copper concentrations in sediment occurred in streams with greater than 40 percent watershed urban land. The number of intolerant fish species and modified index of biotic integrity scores increased in some rural, urbanizing, and urban streams from the 1980s to 1990s, with the largest increases occurring in rural streams with loamy/sandy surficial deposits. However, smaller increases also occurred in urban streams with clayey surficial deposits and over 50 percent watershed urban land. These data illustrate the potentially complex spatial and temporal relations among biotic integrity, sediment chemistry, watershed urban land, population density, and regional and local geologic setting

Grimm N. B., R. W. Sheibley, C. L. Crenshaw, C. N. Dahm, W. J. Roach, and L. H. Zeglin. 2005. N retention and transformation in urban streams. Journal of the North American Benthological Society, 24:626-642.
Abstract: Nutrient spiraling in theory and application provides a framework for comparing nutrient retention efficiency of urban streams to relatively unaltered streams. Previous research indicated that streams of the southwestern USA deserts are highly retentive of N because of N limitation, high productivity, and high channel complexity (in particular, extensive transient storage associated with the hyporheic zone). Most southwestern urban streams have extensively modified channels and experience N loading from urban runoff and inputs of NO3--contaminated groundwater. Therefore, we predicted southwestern urban streams are neither N-limited nor retentive. For some urban streams, however, restoration efforts reestablish flow in long-dry channels, create nonstructural flood-management solutions, and design riparian areas as a public recreation amenity. These human modifications may, in part, restore N retention functions if channel complexity and heterogeneity are as important to N retention efficiency as believed. We conducted experimental tracer studies using NO3-, as part of the Lotic Intersite Nitrogen eXperiment (LINX) project, and several separate nutrient-addition experiments (using slight increases in NO3- concentration), to evaluate N retention in southwestern urban streams. We present preliminary results of those experiments, comparing results to similar experiments in unaltered streams to test our predictions. Our results allow an evaluation of the use of nutrient spiraling metrics as a tool for assessing the status of stream ecosystem services in urban restoration projects

Groffman P. M., A. M. Dorsey, and P. M. Mayer. 2005. N processing within geomorphic structures in urban streams. Journal of the North American Benthological Society, 24:613-625.
Abstract: Stream water often diverges from the main channel into sediments below the stream surface, gravel bars next to the stream, or organic debris dams in the middle of the stream. These geomorphic structures have the potential to support processes that produce or consume inorganic N (NH4+, NO3-) and thus affect streamwater quality. We measured production (potential net mineralization and nitrification) and consumption (denitrification potential, net immobilization) of inorganic N, respiration, and organic-matter content in sediments from geomorphic structures in 4 streams in and around Baltimore, Maryland, USA. We sampled sediments from stream pools, riffles, gravel bars (vegetated and nonvegetated), and organic debris dams in forested reference and suburban catchments, and also sampled degraded (incised channel) and restored reaches of one stream. Denitrification potential was highest in organic debris dams and organic-rich gravel bars-structures with high organic matter content. Organic debris dams in suburban streams had higher denitrification than debris dams in the forested reference stream, likely because of higher NO3- concentrations in suburban streams. These results suggest that denitrification in debris dams increases in response to high NO3- levels and that denitrification may be an important sink for NO3- in urban or suburban streams. However, such denitrifying structures as organic debris dams may be difficult to maintain in urban streams because of high storm flows and downstream displacement. Geomorphic structures in N-rich streams also supported higher rates of nitrification than structures in a forested reference stream, suggesting that these structures can become sources of NO3-. The ultimate effect of different structures on NO3- concentrations in urban streams will depend on the balance of these production and consumption processes, which is a complex function of a stream's ability to retain organic matter and resist hydrologic changes associated with urbanization and elevated NO3- levels

Growns J. E., B. C. Chessman, J. E. Jackson, and D. G. Ross. 1997. Rapid assessment of Australian rivers using macroinvertebrates: cost and efficiency of 6 methods of sample processing. Journal of the North American Benthological Society, 16:682-693.
Abstract: The cost and efficiency of different techniques for processing rapid-assessment samples of lotic macroinvertebrates were evaluated. Subsamples of 50, 100, and 150 selectively picked individuals were compared to determine the optimal subsample size for selective picks. Selective subsampling of a set number of animals was then compared with subsampling by picking for a set time (30 min), exhaustive picking of a sample, and randomly subsampling 100 animals. Identification was to family level. Efficiency was assessed by comparing the ability of data generated by each technique to discriminate between unpolluted reference sites and sites with mild to severe pollution by municipal effluent and urban stormwater runoff. This discrimination was tested using both univariate metrics (SIGNAL biotic index, family richness, and EPT [Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera] family richness) and multivariate tests (analysis of similarity-ANOSIM). Cost was assessed as the amount of time each method required for picking and identification. The selective 100-animal subsample is recommended as the most cost-effective method for assessing sites affected by municipal sewage-treatment-plant discharges and urban stormwater runoff. SIGNAL was the best of the 3 metrics, having the most highly significant differences between reference and polluted sites and being most robust to variations in processing method. ANOSIM could distinguish between the reference and polluted sites using any of the sample processing methods, but the degree of the distinction varied with sample processing method

Harden C. P. 2004. Fluvial response to land-use change in the Southern Appalachian region: A century of investigation. Physical Geography, 25:398-417.
Abstract: Land-use change in the Southern Appalachian region has followed broader social and economic trends over the past century, from unregulated resource exploitation to economic development and conservation. In the early 20th century, land degradation resulting from exploitative land uses in the Southern Appalachian region provoked "corrective" conservation measures and contributed to the emergence of national and regional institutions, including national forest lands in the eastern United States and the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA). Systematic studies of fluvial system responses to forest clearing and mining in this region began in the 1930s at the U.S. Forest Service facilities in North Carolina. Mid-century research consisted of watershed monitoring, principally in projects by the U.S. Forest Service and TVA, to compare the effects of different silvicultural and agricultural practices, while more recent studies involve a range of agencies and institutions and reflect public policies to restore water quality. As research paradigms have changed, the landscape has also changed, thus creating new opportunities to study fluvial responses in landscapes with increased forest cover and/or increased urbanization and to document the persistence of those responses

Hued A. C. and M. D. Bistoni. 2005. Development and validation of a Biotic Index for evaluation of environmental quality in the central region of Argentina. Hydrobiologia, 543:279-298.
Abstract: The Suquia River (Cordoba, Argentina) has become an important issue because it flows into Mar Chiquita Lake, one of the largest saline lakes in the world. This water body, together with the expansive swamps of the Dulce River on the northern shore and the mouth of Suquia and Xanaes River, is considered one of the most important wetlands in Argentina in terms of biodiversity in a range of freshwater to very saline environments. Nevertheless, the presence of densely populated urban settlements and the increasing environmental impact due to anthropogenic activities characterize the central and lower sections of Suquia River Basin. Fishes are particularly affected and change their distribution and abundance as a consequence of the environmental deterioration. We collected information on fish fauna to develop and validate a Biotic Index to assess degradation of the Suquia River Basin. We classified fish species according to their sensitiveness or tolerance to environmental degradation, based on their distribution and abundance variations along a water quality gradient in order to design a Biotic Index for Suquia River Basin. The set of metrics used in the Biotic Index calculation was conformed by: the abundance of Astyanax eigenmanniorum, Rineloricaria catamarcensis, Gambusia affinis and Cnesterodon decemmacultus, the proportion of sensitive species richness, and the proportion of tolerant species richness. They clearly distinguished between the impaired and referenced sites. We demonstrated that it is possible to use fish as indicators of water quality in Cordoba Province (central part of Argentina) in order to carry out rapid and relatively inexpensive monitoring and conservation programs. The application of this Biotic Index showed that fish assemblages reflect the watershed conditions and are sensitive to changes in water quality across the environmental gradient

Kearns F. R., N. M. Kelly, J. L. Carter, and V. H. Resh. 2005. A method for the use of landscape metrics in freshwater research and management. Landscape Ecology, 20:113-125.
Abstract: Freshwater research and management efforts could be greatly enhanced by a better understanding of the relationship between landscape-scale factors and water quality indicators. This is particularly true in urban areas, where land transformation impacts stream systems at a variety of scales. Despite advances in landscape quantification methods, several studies attempting to elucidate the relationship between land use/land cover (LULC) and water quality have resulted in mixed conclusions. However, these studies have largely relied on compositional landscape metrics. For urban and urbanizing watersheds in particular, the use of metrics that capture spatial pattern may further aid in distinguishing the effects of various urban growth patterns, as well as exploring the interplay between environmental and socioeconomic variables. However, to be truly useful for freshwater applications, pattern metrics must be optimized based on iaracteristic watershed properties and common water quality point sampling methods. Using a freely vailable LULC data set for the Santa Clara Basin, California, USA, we quantified landscape composition and configuration for subwatershed areas upstream of individual sampling sites, reducing the number of metrics based on: (1) sensitivity to changes in extent and (2) redundancy, as determined by a multivariate factor analysis. The first two factors, interpreted as (1) patch density and distribution and (2) patch shape and landscape subdivision, explained approximately 85% of the variation in the data set, and are highly reflective of the heterogeneous urban development pattern found in the study area. Although offering slightly less explanatory power, compositional metrics can provide important contextual information

Kominkova D., D. Stransky, G. St'astna, J. Caletkova, J. Nabelkova, and Z. Handova. 2005. Identification of ecological status of stream impacted by urban drainage. Water Science and Technology, 51:249-256.
Abstract: The adoption and implementation of the Directive 2000/60/EC with respect to crucial changes in an approach to water protection require a complex methodology for river and stream status assessment. This paper presents a possible method for assessing the ecological status of urban streams, on for example the Botic creek, the largest tributary of the Vltava River in Prague. The study stream does not possess a good ecological status. The degradation of the ecosystem quality is caused mainly by combined sewer overflows, which reduce water and sediment quality and induce chemical and hydraulic stress for the benthic community

Konrad C. P., D. B. Booth, and S. J. Burges. 2005. Effects of urban development in the Puget Lowland, Washington, on interannual streamflow patterns: Consequences for channel form and streambed disturbance. Water Resources Research, 41.
Abstract: [1] Recovery and protection of streams in urban areas depend on a comprehensive understanding of how human activities affect stream ecosystems. The hydrologic effects of urban development and the consequences for stream channel form and streambed stability were examined in 16 streams in the Puget Lowland, Washington, using three streamflow metrics that integrate storm-scale effects of urban development over annual to decadal timescales: the fraction of time that streamflow exceeds the mean streamflow (T-Qmean), the coefficient of variation of annual maximum streamflow (CVAMF), and the fraction of time that streamflow exceeds the 0.5-year flood (T-0.5). Urban streams had low interannual variability in annual maximum streamflow and brief duration of frequent high flows, as indicated by significant correlations between road density and both CVAMF and T-0.5. The broader distribution of streamflow indicated by T-Qmean may be affected by urban development, but differences in T-Qmean between streams are also likely a result of other physiographic factors. The increase in the magnitude of frequent high flows due to urban development but not their cumulative duration has important consequences for channel form and bed stability in gravel bed streams because geomorphic equilibrium depends on moderate duration streamflow (e.g., exceeded 10% of the time). Streams with low values of T-Qmean and T-0.5 are narrower than expected from hydraulic geometry. Dimensionless boundary shear stress (tau*) for the 0.5-year flood was inversely related to T-0.5 among the streams, indicating frequent and extensive bed disturbance in streams with low values of T-0.5. Although stream channels expand and the size of bed material increases in response to urban streamflow patterns, these adjustments may be insufficient to reestablish the disturbance regime in urban streams because of the differential increase in the magnitude of frequent high flows causing disturbance relative to any changes in longer duration, moderate flows that establish a stable channel

Long J. and M. S. Schorr. 2005. Effects of watershed urban land use on environmental conditions and fish assemblages in Chattanooga area streams (Tennessee-Georgia). Journal of Freshwater Ecology, 20:527-537.
Abstract: We studied fish assemblages within seven streams in the Ridge and Valley ecoregion near Chattanooga, Tennessee. These were all second- to fifth-order streams with small drainage areas (<23 km(2)). Sites were characterized in terms of water quality, habitat and fish assemblages. Relationships among these features and land use were examined at both the riparian and watershed scales. Forty fish species representing nine families were collected by electrofishing. Site-specific findings included the vulnerable flame chub (Hemitremia flammae) and a disjunct population of southern redbelly dace (Phoxinus erythrogaster). Species richness and diversity varied considerably among sites, and index of biotic integrity (IBI) ratings ranged from very poor to fair/good. Species diversity and IBI scores were negatively correlated with watershed urban land use and positively correlated with rocky substrate. Urbanized watersheds were characterized by sites with higher levels of sedimentation and conductivity. Reaches draining well-forested watersheds exhibited more rocky substrate, higher levels of dissolved oxygen, lower temperatures, and more diverse fish assemblages. Riparian forest cover was positively correlated with rocky substrate but not correlated with species diversity or biotic integrity

McBride M. and D. B. Booth. 2005. Urban impacts on physical stream condition: Effects of spatial scale, connectivity, and longitudinal trends. Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 41:565-580.
Abstract: An assessment of physical conditions in urban streams of the Puget Sound region, coupled with spatially explicit watershed characterizations, demonstrates the importance of spatial scale, drainage network connectivity, and longitudinal downstream trends when considering the effects of urbanization on streams. A rapid stream assessment technique and a multimetric index were used to describe the physical conditions of multiple reaches in four watersheds. Watersheds were characterized using geographic information system (GIS) derived landscape metrics that represent the magnitude of urbanization at three spatial scales and the connectivity of urban land. Physical conditions, as measured by the physical stream conditions index (PSCI), were best explained for the watersheds by two landscape metrics: quantity of intense and grassy urban land in the subwatershed and quantity of intense and grassy urban land within 500 m of the site (R-2 = 0.52, p < 0.0005). A multiple regression of PSCI with these metrics and an additional connectivity metric (proximity of a road crossing) provided the best model for the three urban watersheds (R-2 = 0.41, p < 0.0005). Analyses of longitudinal trends in PSCI within the three urban watersheds showed that conditions improved when a stream flowed through an intact riparian buffer with forest or wetland vegetation and without road crossings. Results demonstrate that information on spatial scale and patterns of urbanization is essential to understanding and successfully managing urban streams

Meyer J. L., M. J. Paul, and W. K. Taulbee. 2005. Stream ecosystem function in urbanizing landscapes. Journal of the North American Benthological Society, 24:602-612.
Abstract: Ecologists have described an urban stream syndrome with attributes such as elevated nutrients and contaminants, increased hydrologic flashiness, and altered biotic assemblages. Ecosystem function probably also varies with extent of urbanization, although there are few stream networks in which this prediction has been studied. We examined functional characteristics of 6 tributaries of the Chattahoochee River near Atlanta, Georgia, USA, whose catchments differed in degree of urbanization. We conducted short-term NH4- and PO4-addition experiments to measure nutrient uptake velocity, which is the rate at which a nutrient moves through the water column toward the benthos. Both NH4 and soluble reactive P uptake velocities decreased as indicators of urbanization (i.e., % of catchment covered by high-intensity urban development) increased. The amount of fine benthic organic matter (FBOM) also decreased with increasing urbanization, and uptake velocities were directly related to FBOM. Uptake velocities were not related to ecosystem metabolism (gross primary production [GPP], community respiration [CR], or net ecosystem production) as measured with diel oxygen curves. However, NH4 uptake velocity increased as total stream metabolism (GPP + CR) increased in these streams as well as in other North American streams, suggesting that biotic demand drives NH4 uptake velocities across a wide range of stream ecosystems. Measures of ecosystem function responded differently to urbanization: ecosystem metabolism was not correlated with indicators of urbanization, although breakdown rate of Acer barbatum leaves was positively correlated and nutrient uptake velocities were negatively correlated with indicators of urbanization. Elevated nutrient concentrations associated with urbanization are usually attributed to increased inputs from point and non-point sources; our results indicate that concentrations also may be elevated because of reduced rates of nutrient removal. Altered ecosystem function is another symptom of an urban stream syndrome

Mihailov G., V. Simeonov, N. Nikolov, and G. Mirinchev. 2005. Multivariate statistical assessment of the pollution sources along the stream of Kamchia River, Bulgaria. Water Science and Technology, 51:37-43.
Abstract: Sixteen sampling sites along the stream of Kamchia River were considered as environmental objects in the multivariate statistical study aimed to identify and apportion patterns of sampling sites, latent factors responsible for the data structure and their relation to the emitter industrial and anthropogenic sources in the vicinity of the sampling sites. As variables 11 surface water parameters monitored for a long time period (up to 11 years) were used. Four main site patterns were revealed by cluster analysis (urban, rural, near-to dam and estuary) and for each site latent factors were identified and apportioned (among them "metallurgical", "food production", "winery", domestic wastes", "natural"). The relative contribution of each identified pollution source to the formation of the total concentration of each chemical species or physicochemical parameter was determined and compared to the real emitters in the region of interest

Miltner R. J., D. White, and C. Yoder. 2004. The biotic integrity of streams in urban and suburbanizing landscapes. Landscape and Urban Planning, 69:87-100.
Abstract: The biological health of lotic communities is negatively correlated with the amount of urban land use in the surrounding watershed. This association is due, in part, to a historic lack of regard for the ecological consequences of development. Environmental considerations are increasingly being brought to the fore in land use planning, and to bear on development in the form of stormwater regulations and best management practices. The effectiveness of these practices in maintaining the biological integrity of receiving waters is assumed, though largely untested. We examined the relationship between urban land use and the biological health of streams in historically urbanized areas of Ohio, USA, and tracked the health of three streams over a decade in the rapidly suburbanizing Columbus, Ohio metropolitan area. The health of streams, as measured by the Index of Biotic Integrity, declined significantly when the amount of urban land use measured as impervious cover exceeded 13.8%, and fell below expectations consistent with Clean Water Act goals when impervious cover exceeded 27.1%. Declining biological integrity was noted in two of the three streams with suburbanizing watersheds at levels of total urban land use as low as 4%, demonstrating that poorly regulated construction practices are the first step toward declining stream health in urbanizing landscapes, and also demonstrate that the current regulatory structure is wanting. The few sites in our data set where biological integrity was maintained despite high levels of urban land use occurred in streams where the floodplain and riparian buffer was relatively undeveloped. An aggressive stream protection policy that prescribes mandatory riparian buffer widths, preserves sensitive areas and minimizes hydrologic alteration needs to be part of the larger planning and regulatory framework. (C) 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved

Morgan R. P. and S. E. Cushman. 2005. Urbanization effects on stream fish assemblages in Maryland, USA. Journal of the North American Benthological Society, 24:643-655.
Abstract: We examined patterns in Maryland fish assemblages in 1(st)- through 3rd-order nontidal streams along an urbanization gradient in the Eastern Piedmont (EP) and Coastal Plain (CP) physiographic ecoregions of Maryland, USA, using 1995 to 1997 and 2000 to 2002 data from the Maryland Biological Site Survey (MBSS). Major urbanization and other historical stressors occur in both ecoregions, and there is potential for further stress over the next 25 y as urbanization increases. We assigned each MBSS site (n = 544 streams) to a class of urbanization based on land cover within its upsite catchment. We compared observed fish abundance and species richness to the probable (expected) assemblages within each ecoregion, and also assessed the accuracy of the Maryland fish index of biotic integrity (FIBI) to indicate catchment urbanization. Relationships between urbanization and fish assemblages and FIBI varied between the 2 ecoregions. Assemblages in EP streams exhibited stronger relationships with urbanization than those in CP streams, particularly when urban land cover was > 25% of the catchment. Across all EP stream orders (1(st), 2(nd), and 3(rd)), high urbanization was associated with low fish abundance and richness, low FIBI, and few intolerant fish species, resulting in assemblages dominated by tolerant species. Conservation practices minimizing urbanization effects on fish assemblages may be inadequate to protect sensitive fish species because of the invasiveness of urban development and stressors related to the urban stream syndrome

Morley S. A. and J. R. Karr. 2002. Assessing and restoring the health of urban streams in the Puget Sound basin. Conservation Biology, 16:1498-1509.
Abstract: Rapid urbanization threatens the biota of streams and rivers around the globe. Efforts to manage urban streams traditionally take an engineering approach focused on stormwater runoff, physical channel condition, and chemical water quality. Our objective was to use the biology of streams - measured with the multimetric benthic index of biological integrity (B-IBI) based on benthic macroinvertebrates - to assess stream health. From 1997 to 1999, we sampled invertebrates at 45 sites in second- and third-order streams in the Puget Sound lowlands of Washington State. Land cover upstream of each site was characterized by analysis of a 1998 satellite image. We evaluated associations between five land cover categories and biological condition across three spatial scales. The relationships between B-IBI ( and its component metrics) and stream substrate and hydrologic features were also analyzed at a subset of sites. Across all study sites, B-IBI declined as the percentage of urban land cover increased (r < -0.71, p < 0.001, n > 31). Most metrics were better predicted by sub-basin rather than local-scale urbanization. Within individual basins, however, local land-cover urbanization and B-IBI were strongly correlated (r = -0.91, p < 0.001, n = 9). The biological condition of a site was also related to measures of hydrologic alteration and stream substrate. The aquatic biota is sensitive to a variety of urban effects, expressed at both large and small spatial scales. Biological assessment tools such as B-IBI can identify areas of excellent biological condition for conservation and guide the design and evaluation of efforts to restore the biota of degraded streams

Niezgoda S. L. and P. A. Johnson. 2005. Improving the urban stream restoration effort: Identifying critical form and processes relationships. Environmental Management, 35:579-592.
Abstract: Stream restoration projects are often based on morphological form or stream type and, as a result, there needs to be a clear tie established between form and function of the stream. An examination of the literature identifies numerous relationships in naturally forming streams that link morphologic form and stream processes. Urban stream restoration designs often work around infrastructure and incorporate bank stabilization and grade control structures. Because of these imposed constraints and highly altered hydrologic and sediment discharge regimens, the design of urban channel projects is rather unclear. In this paper, we examine the state of the art in relationships between form and processes, the strengths and weaknesses of these existing relationships, and the current lack of understanding in applying these relationships in the urban environment. In particular, we identify relationships that are critical to urban stream restoration projects and provide recommendations for future research into how this information can be used to improve urban stream restoration design. It is also suggested that improving the success of urban restoration projects requires further investigation into incorporating process-based methodologies, which can potentially reduce ambiguity in the design and the necessity of using an abundant amount of in-stream structures

Parikh P., M. A. Taylor, T. Hoagland, H. Thurston, and W. Shuster. 2005. Application of market mechanisms and incentives to reduce stormwater runoff - An integrated hydrologic, economic and legal approach. Environmental Science & Policy, 8:133-144.
Abstract: Increased stormwater flows are a direct result of urbanization and the consequent increase in the proportion of land area under impervious surface. Due to its contribution to abnormally high stream flows and its role as a carrier of pollutants that degrade water quality, excess stormwater runoff has negative impacts on both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. In response to the increased magnitude and frequency of stormwater runoff events, municipalities and local governments seek cost-effective strategies to manage the risks associated with these stormwater flows. The goal of a proposed interdisciplinary approach involves providing incentives for the construction of small-scale best management practices throughout a small urban watershed, leading to a cost-effective means to control stormwater runoff, and partially restoring a more natural hydrologic regime to a watershed area. Market mechanisms and other incentives have been suggested as plausible approaches to the reduction of stormwater runoff. Development and implementation of market mechanisms and incentives to reduce stormwater runoff, however, involves interdisciplinary considerations and issues. This paper develops an interdisciplinary view of the stormwater runoff issue, beginning with a brief description of stormwater runoff management from a hydrologic perspective. We then present a background on types of market instruments and their related incentives as possible approaches to reducing the risks associated with both the magnitude and frequency of recurrence for excess stormwater runoff flows. This is followed by an analysis of how the federal Clean Water Act and state water laws have dealt with stormwater issues. These perspectives and methods are synthesized to develop several stormwater management scenarios that include stormwater user fees, stormwater runoff charges, allowance markets, and voluntary offset programs. Each of these programs would likely incorporate stormwater best management practices at the watershed level, yet in different ways, and we discuss the opportunities and limitations borne out of our analysis of the legal, economic, and hydrologic considerations. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved

Reuss M. 2005. Ecology, planning, and river management in the united states: Some historical reflections. Ecology and Society, 10.
Abstract: River ecologists are also river-basin planners. However, their role in planning has developed slowly over the decades since the beginning of the 20th century. Three major factors explain this phenomenon. First, ecologists focused on plant and animal communities rather than on broader policy issues related to land settlement and water development. Second, the federal government, and most state and local governments as well, used mainly economic criteria to justify projects. Intangible benefits, including the value of species or an aesthetically pleasing landscape, drew relatively little attention. Third, the public generally favored development, especially during the Great Depression of the 1930s. Only after World War II did the public's position shift in favor of more preservation, as ecologists developed the concept of the ecosystem, large dam projects forced basin inhabitants from their homes, and chemical and nuclear pollutants threatened the environment. Also, urbanization increased support for the preservation of recreation sites and of streams undisturbed by human intervention. Meanwhile, partly through important advances in geomorphology and hydrology, ecologists acquired new tools to understand the land-water relationship within river basins. Neverthless, benefit-cost analysis continued to dominate federal water-resources planning, and organizational culture and competing or overlapping bureaucracies hampered rational water resources administration. Environmental groups and physical, natural, and even social scientists began to promote alternative ways to develop rivers. Today, the ideas of integrated water resources management, sustainable development, and comprehensive river-basin management dominate much of the thinking about the future course of river planning in the United States. Any future planning must include ecologists who can help their planning colleagues choose from among rational choices that balance ecological and human demands, provide advice when planning guidance is drafted, assist engineers in designing projects that lead to ecologically responsible solutions, and help monitor results

Roy A. H., M. C. Freeman, B. J. Freeman, S. J. Wenger, W. E. Ensign, and J. L. Meyer. 2005. Investigating hydrologic alteration as a mechanism of fish assemblage shifts in urbanizing streams. Journal of the North American Benthological Society, 24:656-678.
Abstract: Stream biota in urban and suburban settings are thought to be impaired by altered hydrology, however, it is unknown what aspects of the hydrograph alter fish assemblage structure and which fishes are most vulnerable to hydrologic alterations in small streams. We quantified hydrologic variables and fish assemblages in 30 small streams and their subcatchments (area 8-20 km(2)) in the Etowah River Catchment (Georgia, USA). We stratified streams and their subcatchments into 3 landcover categories based on imperviousness (< 10%, 10-20%, > 20% of subcatchment), and then estimated the degree of hydrologic alteration based on synoptic measurements of baseflow yield. We derived hydrologic variables from stage gauges at each study site for 1 y (January 2003-2004). Increased imperviousness was positively correlated with the frequency of storm events and rates of the rising and falling limb of the hydrograph (i.e., storm "flashiness") during most seasons. Increased duration of low flows associated with imperviousness only occurred during the autumn low-flow period, and this measure corresponded with increased richness of lentic tolerant species. Altered storm flows in summer and autumn were related to decreased richness of endemic, cosmopolitan, and sensitive fish species, and decreased abundance of lentic tolerant species. Species predicted to be sensitive to urbanization, based on specific life-history or habitat requirements, also were related to stormflow variables and % fine bed sediment in riffles. Overall, hydrologic variables explained 22 to 66% of the variation in fish assemblage richness and abundance. Linkages between hydrologic alteration and fish assemblages were potentially complicated by contrasting effects of elevated flows on sediment delivery and scour and mediating effects of high stream gradient on sediment delivery from elevated flows. However, stormwater management practices promoting natural hydrologic regimes are likely to reduce the impacts of catchment imperviousness on stream fish assemblages

Sandstrom M. W., D. W. Kolpin, E. M. Thurman, and S. D. Zaugg. 2005. Widespread detection of N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide in US streams: Comparison with concentrations of pesticides, personal care products, and other organic wastewater compounds. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 24:1029-1034.
Abstract: One of the most frequently detected organic chemicals in a nationwide study concerning the effects of wastewater on stream water quality conducted in the year 2000 was the widely used insect repellant NN-diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET). It was detected at levels of 0.02 mu g/L or greater in 73% of the stream sites sampled, with the selection of sampling sites being biased toward streams thought to be subject to wastewater contamination (i.e., downstream from intense urbanization and livestock production). Although DEET frequently was detected at all sites, the median concentration was low (0.05 mu g/L). The highest concentrations of DEET were found in streams from the urban areas (maximum concentration, 1.1 mu g/L). The results of the present study suggest that the movement of DEET to streams through wastewater- treatment systems is an important mechanism that might lead to the exposure of aquatic organisms to this chemical

Schlenk D. 2003. Use of biochemical Endpoints to determine relationships between contaminants and impaired fish health in a freshwater stream. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, 9:59-66.
Abstract: Bayou Bartholomew is a low gradient stream predominantly influenced by agricultural inputs and stormwater discharge from the urban areas of Pine Bluff, Arkansas. Preliminary studies indicated induction of hepatic cytochrome P450 1A protein (CYP1A) and CYP1A-catalyzed enzyme activity (ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase-EROD) in several fish species collected in the waterway, which meanders through residential areas of Pine Bluff, and forested regions in the outskirts of the city. Largemouth bass (Microplerus salmoides) showed CYP1A repression and a lack of correlation between CYP1A and EROD activity. In addition, hepatic heme oxygenase activity was elevated in several species and demonstrated an inverse relationship with hepatic CYP1A. Hepatic metallothionein was unchanged in any species collected from these locations. Four years after this evaluation, sediments were collected and analyzed for agents that could be mechanistically consistent with the biochemical responses observed. Utilizing seven criteria for causality, these data indicated that PCBs appear to be at least one group of agents responsible for the biological effects observed in fish species from the upper Bayou Bartholomew. While this supports causality under the criteria, further studies in this waterway would strengthen the relationship between this class of compound and the effects observed in resident fish species

Schweizer P. E. and G. R. Matlack. 2005. Annual variation in fish assemblages of watersheds with stable and changing land use. American Midland Naturalist, 153:293-308.
Abstract: Freshwater fish assemblages are sensitive to changes in land use, but it is unclear how rapidly assemblages respond to such change or how closely they track physical changes in the stream environment. We monitored fish assemblages at the outflow of three watersheds on the outer coastal plain of Mississippi over a period of 8 y. The watersheds differed in patterns of land use, being predominantly forested, rapidly urbanizing, and long-urbanized, respectively. Watersheds were distinct in fish species composition, differing primarily in abundance of Etheostoma lynceum, E. stigmaeum, Luxilus chrysocelphalus and Lythrurus roseipinnis. Species richness was consistently greatest at the predominantly forested site and least at the urbanized site. Fish assemblages were distinguish able in terms of substrate preference, water-speed, silt tolerance, and trophic habit. The stream draining the urbanizing watershed showed an increase in richness of species of high silt tolerance and a decrease in richness of those preferring a gravel substrate over the sampling period. Contrail, to expectation, annual variation in composition was modest relative to differences among sites. Annual variation in richness and numbers was unrelated to measures of streamflow or seasonal precipitation. Changes in stream character related to land use change appear to have impacted the fish assemblages of these streams, but the transition to air urban fish assemblage in the urbanizing stream occurred before the study period, well before the obvious signs of physical degradation appeared at the site

Snyder M. N., S. J. Goetz, and R. K. Wright. 2005. Stream health rankings predicted by satellite derived land cover metrics. Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 41:659-677.
Abstract: Land cover and land use change have long been known to influence the chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of streams. This study makes use of land cover maps derived from fine resolution satellite imagery and an extensive stream quality dataset to determine the relationship between small watershed health rankings and land cover composition and configuration. Landscape metrics were derived from digital impervious surface area (ISA), tree cover (percent), and agricultural crop maps within Montgomery County, Maryland. Watershed rankings were developed by state and county collaborators (MD-DNR and MCDEP) using extensive biological and chemical measurements. In stepwise logistic regression models the factors accounting for the most variation in stream health ranking were the percent ISA, followed by the percent of tree cover. Riparian buffer zone tree cover was also a significant predictor. Of the metrics that considered the spatial configuration of the landscape, a contagion index and the percent of ISA in the flow path from the ISA to the stream were also found to be significant predictors of stream health. Despite limited ability to characterize landscape configuration or narrow riparian buffer zone vegetation with coarser resolution imagery (from Landsat), model results were not significantly different from those based on the use of fine-resolution ISA information, suggesting that broader area applications of the approach are possible. The results indicate that management practices designed to improve stream water quality should focus on the amount of ISA and tree cover in both the watershed and within the buffer zone

Suren A. M. and S. McMurtrie. 2005. Assessing the effectiveness of enhancement activities in urban streams: II. Responses of invertebrate communities. River Research and Applications, 21:439-453.
Abstract: The effects of habitat enhancement on the invertebrate communities in five urban streams in Christchurch, Nev, Zealand, were investigated. All streams underwent riparian planting, while extensive channel modifications were made at two streams, where a concrete dish channel and a wooden timber-lined stream were removed and natural banks reinstated. Benthic invertebrates were collected before enhancement and 5 years after from the same locations. Invertebrates were also collected from control sites in each stream in 2001. Desired goals of enhancement activities included increasing the densities of mayflies and caddisflies, and decreasing densities of oligochaetes, snails and midges. Enhancement activities changed riparian vegetation and bank conditions, as well as substrate composition, instream organic matter and variability of instream velocities. Invertebrate communities prior to enhancement were typical of those in urban environments, and dominated by snails (Potamopyrgus, Physa), the amphipod Paracalliope, the hydroptilid caddisfly Oxyethira, oligochaetes and chironomids. Stream enhancement caused only small changes to the invertebrate community, with subtle shifts in overall abundance, species evenness, diversity, and ordination scores. Lack of a consistent strong response by invertebrates to enhancement activities, and continued absence of caddisflies and mayflies from enhanced sites may reflect lack of sufficient change to instream conditions as a result of stream enhancement, colonization bottlenecks for aerial stages of these animals, and the inability of individuals outside the urban watershed to perceive these enhanced 'islands' of good habitat. Alternatively, contamination of streambed sediments, excess sedimentation and reduced base flows may be limiting factors precluding successful invertebrate colonization in enhanced sited. These results highlight the importance of setting clear goals and objectives necessary to meet these goals. Enhancement of riparian zones in urban streams may not be adequate to improve benthic invertebrate communities. Identifying over-arching factors that potentially limit invertebrate communities will enable the enhancement potential of streams to be better assessed, and allow managers to identify sites where recovery of biological communities is possible, and where such recovery is not. Copyright (c) 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Suren A. M., T. Riis, B. J. F. Biggs, S. McMurtrie, and R. Barker. 2005. Assessing the effectiveness of enhancement activities in urban streams: I. Habitat responses. River Research and Applications, 21:381-401.
Abstract: Effects of stream enhancement on habitat conditions in five spring-fed urban streams in Christchurch, New Zealand, were investigated. Stream enhancement consisted of riparian planting at three sites, and riparian planting and channel modifications at two sites. where a concrete dish channel and a timber-lined channel were removed, and natural banks reinstated. Sited, were surveyed prior to enhancement activities and 5 years after, and changes in riparian conditions (composition, horizontal and vertical cover), instream conditions (bank modifications, inorganic and organic material on the streambed), and hydraulic conditions (wetted perimeter, cross-sectional area, depths and velocities) quantified. Enhanced sites generally had higher marginal vegetation cover, as well as increased overhanging riparian vegetation, reflecting planting of Carex sedges close to the water. Bed sediments changed at some sites, with the greatest change being replacement of a concrete channel with gravel and cobble substrate. Bryophyte cover declined at this site, reflecting loss of stable habitat where these plants grew. Bed sediments changed less at other sites, and cover of fine sediments increased in some enhanced sites, presumably from sediment runoff from nearby residential development. Filamentous algal cover decreased at one stream where shade increased, but increased in another stream where the removal of timber-lined banks and creation of a large pond decreased shade. Stream enhancement increased variability in velocity at three of the five sites, but overall changes to stream hydraulics were small. Although enhancement activities altered the physical conditions of the streams, major changes occurred only to riparian vegetation and bank conditions. Lack of other major changes to instream physical conditions most likely reflected the limited range of channel morphology alterations undertaken. Moreover, the flat topography of Christchurch and naturally low stream discharge further constrained changes to instream physical conditions from enhancement activities. Sediment inputs from continuing urban development also negated the effects of adding coarse substrates. These over-arching factors may constrain the success of future stream enhancement projects within Christchurch. Copyright (c) 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Tang Z., B. A. Engel, B. C. Pijanowski, and K. J. Lim. 2005. Forecasting land use change and its environmental impact at a watershed scale. Journal of Environmental Management, 76:35-45.
Abstract: Urban expansion is a major driving force altering local and regional hydrology and increasing non-point source (NPS) pollution. To explore these environmental consequences of urbanization, land use change was forecast, and long-term runoff and NPS pollution were assessed in the Muskeaon River watershed, located on the eastern coast of Lake Michigan. A land use change model, LTM, and a web-based environmental impact model. L-THIA, were used in this study. The outcomes indicated the watershed would likely be subjected to impacts from urbanization on runoff and some types of NPS pollution. Urbanization will slightly or considerably increase runoff volume, depending on the development rate. slightly increase nutrient losses in runoff, but significantly increase losses of oil and grease and certain heavy metals in runoff. The spatial variation Of urbanization and its impact were also evaluated at the subwatershed scale and showed subwatersheds along the coast of the lake and close to cities would have runoff and nitrogen impact. The results of this study have significant implications for urban planning and decision making in an effort to protect and remediate water and habitat quality of Muskegon Lake, which is one of Lake Michigan's Areas of Concern (AOC) and the techniques described here can be used in other areas. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved

Ulseth A. J. and A. E. Hershfy. 2005. Natural abundances of stable isotopes trace anthropogenic N and C in an urban stream. Journal of the North American Benthological Society, 24:270-289.
Abstract: Important ecological services of low-order streams are greatly affected by urbanization. North Buffalo Creek, in the headwaters of the Cape Fear River basin in Greensboro, North Carolina, receives point- and nonpoint-source pollutants. Natural abundances of the stable isotopes of C (C-13) and N (N-15) were used to determine the influence of anthropogenic nutrients on seston delta(15)N, nutrient concentrations, C/N ratios, and patterns of delta(13)C and delta(15)N in foodweb components in North Buffalo Creek during different hydrological conditions. Baseflow seston delta(15)N varied significantly among sampling sites. Baseflow seston delta(15)N ranged from 3.7 parts per thousand to 4.6 parts per thousand at forested sites and was slightly enriched at open sites, and probably reflected nonpoint sources of N in North Buffalo Creek. Seston delta(15)N also reflected point sources of N in North Buffalo Creek. The most enriched seston delta(15)N values (8.4 parts per thousand) were found directly downstream of the Waste Water Treatment Plant (WWTP). Seston delta(15)N values at the Rankin Mill Road (Rankin) site, several km downstream of the WWTP, also were strongly influenced by effluent from the WWTP. The Summit Avenue site (Summit) received textile effluent until June 2001. Before lone 2001, seston N-15 at Summit was depleted compared to seston N-15 at sites upstream of the plant, probably because the textile effluent was depleted in N-15. During storms, seston delta(15)N was negatively correlated with nutrient concentrations upstream of the WWTP. However, at Rankin Mill Road, seston delta(15)N was positively correlated with NO3- flux, which explained 54% of the variation in seston delta(15)N. delta(15)N was not correlated with NH4+ and PO4-3 fluxes at Rankin Mill Road. During storms, seston delta(15)N was influenced partially by nonpoint sources of N, a pattern consistent with observed C/N ratios. delta(13)C values for most foodweb components and delta(15)N values for all foodweb components varied significantly between sites, suggesting that sources of C and N differed among sites. Foodweb components at Rankin were enriched in N-15 from incorporation of sewage-derived N from the WWTP effluent, whereas, prior to June 2001, foodweb components at Summit appeared to be depleted in N-15 from incorporation of textile effluent. Thus, specific influences of point sources of N could be distinguished in foodweb components. Nonpoint sources and stormwater influenced seston delta(15)N during storm events, but these sources could not be distinguished in consumers by using natural abundances of stable isotopes Urbonas B. R. and J. T. Doerfer. 2005. Master planning for stream protection in urban watersheds. Water Science and Technology, 51:239-247.
Abstract: Urbanization results in great changes to the landscape and the water environment simply because stormwater runoff differs in quantity and quality from the pre-urbanization state. Streams, rivers, lakes, estuaries and other receiving water bodies experience the changes to runoff frequencies and volumes and react accordingly. The forces behind the observed changes in the receiving waters are discussed in this paper and suggestions are made on how to plan to deal with them. Urban watershed and waterway master planning can help to mitigate, in large part, the impacts imposed on these waters by land-use changes. Although each watershed is unique, some general principles are suggested to deal with these emergent problems

Walsh C. J., T. D. Fletcher, and A. R. Ladson. 2005. Stream restoration in urban catchments through redesigning stormwater systems: looking to the catchment to save the stream. Journal of the North American Benthological Society, 24:690-705.
Abstract: Restoration of streams degraded by urbanization has usually been attempted by enhancement of instream habitat or riparian zones. Such restoration approaches are unlikely to substantially improve instrearn ecological condition because they do not match the scale of the degrading process. Recent studies of urban impacts on streams in Melbourne, Australia, on water chemistry, algal biomass and assemblage composition of diatoms and invertebrates, suggested that the primary degrading process to streams in many urban areas is effective imperviousness (EI), the proportion of a catchment covered by impervious surfaces directly connected to the stream by stormwater drainage pipes. The direct connection of impervious surfaces to streams means that even small rainfall events can produce sufficient surface runoff to cause frequent disturbance through regular delivery of water and pollutants; where impervious surfaces are not directly connected to streams, small rainfall events are intercepted and infiltrated. We, therefore, identified use of alternative drainage methods, which maintain a near-natural frequency of surface runoff from the catchment, as the best approach to stream restoration in urban catchments and then used models of relationships between 14 ecological indicators and EI to determine restoration objectives. Ecological condition, as indicated by concentrations of water-quality variables, algal biomass, and several measures of diatom and macroinvertebrate assemblage composition, declined with increasing El until a threshold was reached (EI = 0.01-0.14), beyond which no further degradation was observed. We showed, in a sample catchment, that it is possible to redesign the drainage system to reduce El to a level at which the models predict detectable improvement in most ecological indicators. Distributed, low-impact design measures are required that intercept rainfall from small events and then facilitate its infiltration, evaporation, transpiration, or storage for later in-house use

Walsh C. J., A. H. Roy, J. W. Feminella, P. D. Cottingham, P. M. Groffman, and R. P. Morgan. 2005. The urban stream syndrome: current knowledge and the search for a cure. Journal of the North American Benthological Society, 24:706-723.
Abstract: The term ''urban stream syndrome'' describes the consistently observed ecological degradation of streams draining urban land. This paper reviews recent literature to describe symptoms of the syndrome, explores mechanisms driving the syndrome, and identifies appropriate goals and methods for ecological restoration of urban streams. Symptoms of the urban stream syndrome include a flashier hydrograph, elevated concentrations of nutrients and contaminants, altered channel morphology, and reduced biotic richness, with increased dominance of tolerant species. More research is needed before generalizations can be made about urban effects on stream ecosystem processes, but reduced nutrient uptake has been consistently reported. The mechanisms driving the syndrome are complex and interactive, but most impacts can be ascribed to a few major large-scale sources, primarily urban stormwater runoff delivered to streams by hydraulically efficient drainage systems. Other stressors, such as combined or sanitary sewer overflows, wastewater treatment plant effluents, and legacy pollutants (long-lived pollutants from earlier land uses) can obscure the effects of stormwater runoff. Most research on urban impacts to streams has concentrated on correlations between instream ecological metrics and total catchment imperviousness. Recent research shows that some of the variance in such relationships can be explained by the distance between the stream reach and urban land, or by the hydraulic efficiency of stormwater drainage The mechanisms behind such patterns require experimentation at the catchment scale to identify the best management approaches to conservation and restoration of streams in urban catchments. Remediation of stormwater impacts is most likely to be achieved through widespread application of innovative approaches to drainage design. Because humans dominate urban ecosystems, research on urban stream ecology will require a broadening of stream ecological research to integrate with social, behavioral, and economic research

Wardrop D. H., J. A. Bishop, M. Easterling, K. Hychka, W. Myers, G. P. Patil, and C. Taillie. 2005. Use of landscape and land use parameters for classification and characterization of watersheds in the mid-Atlantic across five physiographic provinces. Environmental and Ecological Statistics, 12:209-223.
Abstract: The Atlantic Slope Consortium (ASC) is a project designed to develop and test a set of indicators in coastal systems that are ecologically appropriate, economically reasonable, and relevant to society. The suite of indicators will produce integrated assessments of the condition, health and sustainability of aquatic ecosystems based on ecological and socioeconomic information compiled at the scale of estuarine segments and small watersheds. The research mandate of the ASC project is the following: Using a universe of watersheds, covering a range of social choices, we ask two questions: center dot How "good'' can the environment be, given those social choices? center dot What is the intellectual model of condition within those choices, i.e., what are the causes of condition and what are the steps for improvement? As a basis for compiling ecological indicators, a watershed classification system was required for the experimental design. The goal was to develop approximately. five categories of watersheds for each physiographic province, utilizing landscape and land use parameters that would be predictive of aquatic resource condition. All 14-digit Hydrologic Unit Code (HUC) watersheds in the Mid-Atlantic region would then be classified according to the regime. Five parameters were utilized for the classification: three land cover categories, consisting of forested, agricultural, and urban, median slope or median elevation, and total variance of land covers in 1-km-radius circles positioned on all stream convergence points in a specified 14-digit HUC watershed. Cluster analysis utilizing these five parameters resulted in approximately five well-defined watershed classes per physiographic province. The distribution of all watersheds in the Mid-Atlantic region across these categories provides a unique report on the probable condition of watersheds in the region

Wheeler A. P., P. L. Angermeier, and A. E. Rosenberger. 2005. Impacts of new highways and subsequent landscape urbanization on stream habitat and biota. Reviews in Fisheries Science, 13:141-164.
Abstract: New highways are pervasive, pernicious threats to stream ecosystems because of their short- and long-term physical, chemical, and biological impacts. Unfortunately, standard environmental impact statements (EISs) and environmental assessments (EAs)focus narrowly on the initial direct impacts of construction and ignore other long-term indirect impacts. More thorough consideration of highway impacts, and, ultimately, better land use decisions may be facilitated by conceptualizing highway development in three stages: initial highway construction, highway presence, and eventual landscape urbanization. Highway construction is characterized by localized physical disturbances, which generally subside through time. In contrast, highway presence and landscape urbanization are characterized by physical and chemical impacts that are temporally persistent. Although the impacts of highway presence and landscape urbanization are of similar natures, the impacts are of a greater magnitude and more widespread in the urbanization phase. Our review reveals that the landscape urbanization stage is clearly the greatest threat to stream habitat and biota, as stream ecosystems are sensitive to even low levels (< 10%) of watershed urban development. Although highway construction is ongoing, pervasive, and has severe biological consequences, we found few published investigations of its impacts on Streams. Researchers know little about the occurrence, loading rates, and biotic responses to specific contaminants in highway runoff. Also needed is a detailed understanding of how highway crossings, especially culverts, affect fish populations via constraints on movement and how highway networks alter natural regimes (e.g., streamflow, temperature). Urbanization research topics that may yield especially useful results include a) the relative importance and biological effects of specific components of urban development-e.g., commercial or residential, b) the scenarios under which impacts are reversible; and c) the efficacy of mitigation measures-e.g., stormwater retention or treatment and forested buffers

Williams M., C. Hopkinson, E. Rastetter, J. Vallino, and L. Claessens. 2005. Relationships of land use and stream solute concentrations in the Ipswich River basin, northeastern Massachusetts. Water Air and Soil Pollution, 161:55-74.
Abstract: The relationships of land use/land cover (LULC) on major solute concentrations in stream water were investigated for the Ipswich River basin ( 404 km(2)) in northeastern Massachusetts. Stream water was sampled seven times during base flow in 43 first-order catchments and four times in 28 second- and third-order catchments. Regression analysis of the first-order catchment data indicates that NO3-, acid neutralizing capacity (ANC), Cl-, SO42-, and the base cations had positive, mostly exponential relationships with the increasing extent of urban + agricultural area ( P < 0.05), whereas dissolved organic nitrogen ( DON) and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) had positive, exponential relationships with the increasing extent of wetland + open water ( P < 0.05). Solute sources responsible for many of these relationships are human-derived constituents found in septic effluent, fertilizers, and road salts. In contrast to more conservative solutes, concentrations of NO3- in the first-order streams were commonly higher than in those of second- and third- order streams with similar proportions of urban + agricultural land use. Using LULC subclasses ( e. g., high density residential), as well as the proportions of LULC in 50, 100, and 200 m concentric zones bordering streams, generally decreased the relationships (r(2)) determined above. Hence, the disturbed area of the entire subbasin was the best descriptor of streamwater solute concentrations. Potassium concentrations in stream water had stronger relationships than any other ion, yet these explained < 60% of the variability, indicating that there are a number of important ancillary factors that affect streamwater solute composition in the Ipswich River basin

Wilson C., R. Clarke, B. J. D'Arcy, K. V. Heal, and P. W. Wright. 2005. Persistent pollutants urban rivers sediment survey: implications for pollution control. Water Science and Technology, 51:217-224.
Abstract: The impacts of diffuse urban sources of pollution on watercourses are quantified. A survey of nine urban streams in Scotland for persistent pollutants in stream sediments is described, together with sediments from SUDS ponds. Determinands reported are: PAHs, total hydrocarbons, and toxic metals (As, Zn, Ni, Pb, Cu, Cr, Cd). Results highlight hydrocarbons as a major urban pollutant, and show significant sediment contamination by toxic metals. The metals that occurred in the highest concentrations varied across the nine streams, but Pb, Cr, Ni, Zn and Cu most frequently present exceeded sediment quality standards. The pattern of contamination by PAHs suggested that pyrolytic sources were more ubiquitous and present in greater quantities than oil spill sources in these urban catchments. Exceptions were the sites below industrial estates. The findings indicate that four levels of activity will be needed to control urban diffuse sources of pollution: reductions in quantities of toxic pollutants used by manufacturers in the motor and construction industries; housekeeping measures to minimise storage and handling risks for oil and chemicals; public engagement to minimise polluting activities such as dumping oil and chemicals, and private car use; use of SUDS technology, including retro-fits in the worst affected urban areas

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Relationships among hydrologic characteristics, aquatic life indices and urban stormwater management practices: selected references

Compiled by Eric Perkins, 10/5/05

Booth, D.B., Hartley, D., and R. Hackson. 2002. Forest cover, impervious-surface area, and the mitigation of stormwater impacts. Journal of American Water Resources Association 38:835-845.

Clausen, B. and B.J.F. Biggs. 1997. Relationships between benthic biota and hydrological indices in New Zealand streams. Freshwater Biology, 38:327-342.

Cleland, B. 2003. TMDL development from the Òbottom upÓ Ð Part III: Duration curves and wet-weather assessments. AmericaÕs Clean Water Foundation, Washington, DC.

Horner, R., May, C., Livingston, E., Blaha, D., Scoggins, M., Tims, J. and J. Maxted. 2001. Structural and non-structural BMPs for protecting streams. In B.R. Urbonas (ed.), Linking Stormwater BMP Designs and Performance to Receiving Water Impact Mitigation, Proceedings of an Engineering Foundation Conference, Reston, VA. August 2001, p. 60-77.

Jones, R.C., and C.C. Clark. 1987. Impact of watershed urbanization on stream insect communities. Water Resources Bulletin 23(6):1047.

Kar, J.R. 1991. Biological integrity: a long-neglected aspect of water resource management. Ecological Applications 1:66-84.

Kennen, J.G. 1999. Relation of macroinvertebrate community impairment to catchment characteristics in New Jersey streams. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 35(4): 939-955.

Maxted, J.R. 1999. The effectiveness of retention basins to protect aquatic life and physical habitat in three regions of the United States. Proceedings of the Comprehensive Stormwater and Aquatic Ecosystem Management Conference, Auckland, New Zealand, February 1999, p. 215-222.

Newbury, R.W. 1984. Hydrologic determinants of aquatic insect habitat. Chapter 11, in V.H. Resh and D.M. Rosenberg (eds.). The Ecology of Aquatic Insects. Praeger, New York, New York. p. 323-357.

Richter, B.D., Baumgartner, J.V., Powell, J., and D.B Braun. 1996. A method for assessing hydrologic alteration within ecosystems. Conservation Biology 10:1163-1174.

Saravanapavan, T., Voorhees, M., Isaac, R., and A. Parker. 2005. Development of an approach for calculating TMDLs for habitat/aquatic life impairments caused by multiple urban stressors. Proceedings of the TMDL Specialty Conference, Water Environment Federation, Philadelphia, PA, June 2005, p. 659-670.

Statzner, B., and B. Higler. 1986. Stream hydraulics as a major determinant of benthic invertebrate zonation patterns. Freshwater Biology 16:127-139.

Stepenuck, K.F., Crunkilton, R.I., and L. Wang. 2002. Impacts of urban land use on macroinvertebrate communities in southeastern Wisconsin streams. Journal of American Water Resources Association 38(4):1041.

Stribling, J.B., Leppo, E.W., Cummins, J.D., Galli, J., Meigs, S., Coffman, L., and Cheng, M., 2001, Relating instream biological condition to BMPs in Watershed. In B.R. Urbonas (ed.) Linking Stormwater BMP Designs and Performance to Receiving Water Impact Mitigation, Proceedings of an Engineering Foundation Conference, Reston, VA. August 2001, p. 287-303.

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