| Climate |
Flora | Wildlife |
Location |
Ecological Functions |
Geology |
Hydrology |
Human Interactions | About the Author |
References |
Early History
The early history of Singapore is sketchy, and the island is reffered to by many names in ancient texts. However, the most accepted story of human settlement and the naming of Singapore goes something like this. Sang Nila Utama, the ruler of Palembang (now Indonesia), landed his ship on the island to take shelter from stormy seas around 1330 and he decided to establish a settlement there. He thought that the first animal he saw was a lion, and - as it was a majestic animal - he named the area Singapura, or "Lion City". This became the common name of the island by the mid 14th century. The people who settled the island were of chinese decent. They used mangrove trees, like Rhizophora apiculata, A. rumphiana, and Sonneratia ovata for firewood and gathered the fruit from A. officials. Mangroves were also used for fishing. Civilization developed slowely over the next few centuries, and the island (outside of the small pockets of human settlement) was left relatively un-altered.
Later History
In 1819 the first events that would significantly change the island's ecosystems took place. The British were expanding their colonial reach across India at that time. They were expanding their trade with China at the same time and needed a port in the area to repair, provision and protect their merchant fleet. In 1819 Britain established a trading post on Singapore, and the island was set to fall under colonial control. At this time practically the entire island was forested. The original forest was composed of 82% evergreen rain forest, 13% mangrove, and 5% freshwater swamp forest. Tigers, wild boars and musangs were common.
Singapore was a very successful trading point. By 1823, it was earning more revenue than the country of Penang. The next year Singapore's status as a British possession was made legal by two treaties. The first was the Anglo-Dutch Treaty signed in March 1824. In it, the Dutch agreed to the British occupation of Singapore. The second deal was made with Sultan Hussein and Temenggong Abdu'r Rahman (the current rulers of the island) in that August. In this treaty the two men granted the island to the British in return for increased cash payments and pensions. As the settlement grew in the 1840's, forests were cut down to grow crops such as nutmeg, gamlier, clove, pepper and cocoa.The invention of the steamship in the mid-1860s and the completion of the Suez Canal in 1869 really put Singapore on the map. It became a major port of call for ships trading between EuropeEast Asia. Rubber plants were introduced in the 1870s, and Singapore became the largest exporter of rubber in the world. The country prospered and trade expanded eightfold from 1873 to 1913. This wealth attracted immigrants from all over, and by 1860, the population had grown to 80,792. The people were still mostly Chinese, but a significant amount of Indians and Malaysians now lived there.
These activities, while good for the economy, were devestating for the local ecosystems. Singapore is not a large area, and much of the forested land was cleared for housing and agriculture. Many endemic plant species were lost. The effect was amplified for the wildlife, especially large mammals that require large ranges. Tigers, wild boars and musangs are all no longer found in Sungei Buloh, or anywhere else on the island. As human settlement spread, forest and woodland birds were replaced with species more common in urban areas.
The island nation fell to Japan in WWII but returned to British rule after the war. They were granted Self-government by the crown in 1959, and Singapore gained its independance and was admitted to the United Nations on 21 September 1965. After independance, a massively successful industrialization program was launched. Singapore's area is now 49.7% city, 1.7% farms , 4.4% forest, 2.4% marsh and tidal waste, and 41.9% others (reservoirs, cemeteries, public gardens, etc.). Singapore has the third largest population density in the world at 5,354 per sq km, and demand for land use is extremely high. As a result, the remaining mangroves are fragmented and isolated from eachother. Sungei Buloh is now in close proximity to agriculture and housing which has driven out species that require a large area (like tiggers) and has caused contaminant problems (like runoff).
| Here are maps showing the contrast of forest cover in Singapore between the 1820's and the 1990's. | |
| (Forest
cover in 1819) Both images: http://mangrove.nus.edu.sg/guidebooks/text/1004.htm |
(Forest
cover in 1990's) |
There
are
now only small patches of mangrove on the island. The largest being in
the northern part of the main island and on the sub-islands of Pulau
Tekong, Pulau Ubin and Pulau Semakau. In the 90's, large mangrove areas
were cleared and filled for housing and other uses. The remaining
mangrove forests are incomplete ecosystems. Like habitats across the
island, the animals at the top of the food chain have been driven to
extinction (on the island at least). As a result, tigers and crocodiles
are no longer found in Sungei Buloh.
Current Issues
Trash:
In 1996, around 7,529 tons of waste was produced every day in Singapore, and only 35% of that is recycled. Waste desposal has become a significant problem for Singapore, since there is so little land. They have resorted to using an offshore landfill between islands of Pulau Semakau and Pulau Sakeng off the southern coast. A lot of this trash has ended up in the mangroves along the coast. It is mostly plastic and accumulates on the sandbanks at the seaward edge, and at the high-tide mark further inland. To combat this problem the International Coastal Cleanup in Singapore has mobalized thousands of student volunteers since 1992, who help with trash cleanup all over the island. They collect data on the trash removed and use it to determine trends in waste.
Development:
Singapore is a very small area with a large population. Because of this wetlands are being converted to agricultural land and filled for human settlement and development at an alarming rate. While the Reserve itself is completely protected from this threat, development continues to close in on its borders. With development coming right up to the line, a significant change in the habitat can occur when a portion of the environment becomes edge.
Fragmentation:
As development encroached on the Reserve, it became isolated from other mangrove. A few roads and paths have also been built through the park by its managers. These two forces have fragmented the habitat. As a result, some species have been lost, but this seems to have leveled off. It has been a necessary evil to build the paths through the park; The revenue generated by bird watching has made the preservation of the site possible.
Air Pollution:
The main source of air pollution in Singapore is from burning fossil fuels for heat, industry, transportation, and electricity. Sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, hydrocarbons and particulates are emitted. Like acid rain problems here in the Northeast, this pollution has undoubtedly had negative impacts on the mangroves, though I could find no study directly on this relationship. Air quality is the poorest during the dry season, when forest fires in Indonesia effect Singapore's air.
For the most part, it appears that the worst is definately over for the Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve. It is considered a national treasure, and a lot of effort and money is being directed toward preserving the site. Development and fragmentation have already taken their toll on the mangrove, and, since it is protected, these forces will no longer be a threat to the park. Singapore, while highly developed, is a very environmentally conscious country. The littering problem is being curbed. In fact, If you are caught littering you have to serve up to 12 hours of community service and can recieve a fine up to $5,000. There are definately pollution issues surrounding industry and urbanization. However, the government is working very hard to reduce this, and Singapore is famous for its cleanliness.
This whole-sale destruction of the natural capital of the island was not going unnoticed. In 1986, a group of birdwatchers from the Malayan Nature Society discovered the extremely bird-rich Sungei Buloh mangroves, and wrote a proposal to the government to conserve it. The government was receptive to the proposal, and in 1989 a 87 ha site was set aside as a nature park . The Parks & Recreation Department managed Sungei Buloh to maximize bird habitat. With advice from experts at the Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust (United Kingdom) and the Worldwide Fund for Nature, they created artifical ponds to attract waterfowl . In 1993, Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong officially opened the Nature Park to visitors. Later, in 2001, the park was declared a Nature Resrve, and this ensured that it would be protected from development.
Current Issues
Trash:
In 1996, around 7,529 tons of waste was produced every day in Singapore, and only 35% of that is recycled. Waste desposal has become a significant problem for Singapore, since there is so little land. They have resorted to using an offshore landfill between islands of Pulau Semakau and Pulau Sakeng off the southern coast. A lot of this trash has ended up in the mangroves along the coast. It is mostly plastic and accumulates on the sandbanks at the seaward edge, and at the high-tide mark further inland. To combat this problem the International Coastal Cleanup in Singapore has mobalized thousands of student volunteers since 1992, who help with trash cleanup all over the island. They collect data on the trash removed and use it to determine trends in waste.
Development:
Singapore is a very small area with a large population. Because of this wetlands are being converted to agricultural land and filled for human settlement and development at an alarming rate. While the Reserve itself is completely protected from this threat, development continues to close in on its borders. With development coming right up to the line, a significant change in the habitat can occur when a portion of the environment becomes edge.
Fragmentation:
As development encroached on the Reserve, it became isolated from other mangrove. A few roads and paths have also been built through the park by its managers. These two forces have fragmented the habitat. As a result, some species have been lost, but this seems to have leveled off. It has been a necessary evil to build the paths through the park; The revenue generated by bird watching has made the preservation of the site possible.
Air Pollution:
The main source of air pollution in Singapore is from burning fossil fuels for heat, industry, transportation, and electricity. Sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, hydrocarbons and particulates are emitted. Like acid rain problems here in the Northeast, this pollution has undoubtedly had negative impacts on the mangroves, though I could find no study directly on this relationship. Air quality is the poorest during the dry season, when forest fires in Indonesia effect Singapore's air.
For the most part, it appears that the worst is definately over for the Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve. It is considered a national treasure, and a lot of effort and money is being directed toward preserving the site. Development and fragmentation have already taken their toll on the mangrove, and, since it is protected, these forces will no longer be a threat to the park. Singapore, while highly developed, is a very environmentally conscious country. The littering problem is being curbed. In fact, If you are caught littering you have to serve up to 12 hours of community service and can recieve a fine up to $5,000. There are definately pollution issues surrounding industry and urbanization. However, the government is working very hard to reduce this, and Singapore is famous for its cleanliness.
| Climate |
Flora | Wildlife |
Location |
Ecological Functions |
Geology |
Hydrology |
Natural History | About the Author |
References |