World War II and the Middle East

1)      colonial powers and the War

2)      decline of colonial power/entrance of the U.S. and Soviets

3)      beginning of the Cold War in the Middle East

I.                    Colonial Powers and the War

--trend in the years leading up to the war was for the British and French to

agree to treaties increasing the independence of their mandates.  But as Europe got closer to war, London and Paris began to reassert more direct control

            --in Syria, France refused to ratify the 1936 Treaty.  Suspended elected legislature and the constitution.  In 1939, ceded Alexandretta to Turkey.  With the fall of France and the installation of the Vichy government, Britain decides that it cannot accept a Vichy government in Syria and Lebanon.  Militarily occupies area, along with Free French troops, in 1941.

            --in Egypt, as Germans were pushing across North Africa, in 1942 British stepped in and forced the king to accept a Wafd government.  Tanks outside the palace.  Large contingent of Allied forces in Egypt during the war.

            --in Iraq, pro-German Rashid Ali al-Kailani launches military coup in 1942.  Regent and pro-British politicians flee to Jordan.  British troops from India and Palestine converge on Iraq, supported by the Trans-Jordanian Arab Legion.  Restores pro-British government.

            --from Nazi invasion of USSR and Moscow coming in with Allies, Iran becomes a key to Allied strategy.  Ruling circles around Reza Shah were mostly pro-German, so Allies militarily occupy the country (Britain south, Soviets north) and force Reza Shah to abdicate in favor of his son, Muhammad Reza.  US forces join the occupation; Allied forces stay until the end of the war (Teheran Conference of 1943 commitment).

--In all these cases, the reassertion of colonial control served to undermine the nationalist credentials of the local parties which cooperated with the Allies, be it the Wafd in Egypt, the throne in Iraq, Muhammad Reza Shah in Iran.

II.  Decline of Colonial Power/Entrance of U.S. and USSR

--War represented a reversal of trend toward more local control, with reassertion of colonial power.  But in many ways a last gasp, as both Britain and France are drained by the war. 

--France in effect loses its Middle Eastern (not North African) possessions,

with Syria and Lebanon becoming independent in 1944 (Britain and US block French reassertion of control). 

--Britain can no longer maintain role in Turkey or Iran (formally cede that

to US), give up on Palestine in 1948 (as we will see later); have troubles in Egypt and Iraq as their client governments fall in 1950's (as we will see later).

--War saw the entrance of both the USSR and U.S. into the region in a major way:

                        --USSR with troops in Iran and efforts to set up pro-Soviet local governments in areas of Iran under their control; with designs on Turkey; with Communist parties playing a political role in places like Egypt, Syria and Iraq

                        --US with troops in Iran.  But more importantly with US commitment to Saudi Arabia.  And that brings us to oil.  WWII brings out the strategic importance of oil as the fuel of modern war (airplanes, tanks).  During the war the Roosevelt Administration actually put forward a plan to nationalize the US oil industry, but it could not gain sufficient Congressional support.  Highlights the centrality of oil.  And that highlights the centrality of Saudi Arabia.

                        --Saudi-US:  1933 Standard Oil of California (Chevron) gets concession for oil exploration in Saudi.  In 1934 brings in Texaco, forms ARAMCO (Arabian American Oil Company).  Development suspended during the War, but the importance of the Saudi oil resources clear (Roosevelt Adm. following up proposal for nationalizing whole industry with proposal to nationalize ARAMCO).  With Saudi strapped for resources during the War, US steps in with Lend-Lease Aid (first through Britain, then directly).  Saudis granted US right to build an airbase in Dhahran, in the oil area; US mission came out to train Saudi armed forces.  Culminates with February 1945 meeting between Roosevelt and Ibn Saud in Great Bitter Lake on USS Quincy.

                        --Oil starts flowing from Saudi Arabia immediately after the War, and US role grows:  US assistance in technical development, extension of lease on Dhahran Airbase, small American naval force in Bahrain.  Most importantly, the U.S. consolidated the hold of American companies on Saudi oil industry:  waiver of anti-trust rules to allow Exxon and Mobil to join ARAMCO; increase in payments to Saudi government through 50-50 deal in 1950.

III.  Beginning of the Cold War in the Middle East

1.      Azerbaijan crisis of 1946:  Under terms of Teheran Declaration of 1943, US, UK and

USSR were to have evacuated Iran within 6 months of end of the war.  US and UK did, but Soviets remained, helping to set up pro-Communist regional governments in Azerbaijan and Iranian Kurdistan.  Iran raised the issue at the new United Nations Security Council.  The US made strong but private representations to the Soviet government calling for a Soviet withdrawal.  The Iranian government also offered USSR oil concessions in the northern part of the country.  Soviets withdrew; Iranian parliament refused to ratify the oil concession.  US begins military and economic aid to Iran in 1949 (though not that much).

                        --first US-Soviet confrontation in the post-War period, at least outside of Europe.  Established something of a model for many in Washington about how to deal with Soviet expansionist tendencies – face them down and Soviets will back down.  Also highlighted strategic importance of Iran for any Cold War contingency – borders with USSR, access to sea and oil area.

2.      Turkish crisis and Truman Doctrine:  Turkey had remained neutral in WWII

(recognizing mistake of WWI).  At the conclusion of the War, USSR demanded territorial concessions from Turkey, a Soviet base in Turkish Straits and revision of the Montreaux Convention, the international agreement governing the Straits.  Soviet diplomatic pressure on Turkey through 1946 coupled with agitation by pro-Communist forces in Turkey.  Britain informed US that it could not offer military support to Turkey if the crisis escalated.  (Also in Greece, where a civil war was going on.)  March 1947 Pres. Truman addresses Congress, announced “Truman Doctrine” of support to countries threatened by Communism.  $100 million in military aid to Turkey immediately, much more following (largest recipient of US aid in 1950’s); May 1947 US fleet visits Istanbul to pro-American demonstrations; 1951 Turkey joins NATO.  Important NATO bases still in Turkey (Diyarbakir in southeastern Turkey – Gulf War and Iraqi overflights).

                        --US commitment to Turkish defense.  Coming on heals of Azerbaijan crisis, US increasingly involved in defense commitments to Middle Eastern countries bordering the Soviet Union.  To some extent, old British role of resisting southward Russian expansion before World War I.

3.      Mossadeq coup:  In wake of 50-50 deal for Saudi, Iran pushed for a similar deal with

BP.  But British government not in same position to subsidize such a deal, so BP refuses.  The National Front group in Iranian parliament, headed by Qajar noble Muhammad Mossadeq, pushed for nationalization of the oil industry.  Parliament passed a nationalization law in 1951, and Mossadeq was appointed prime minister by a reluctant Shah.  BP persuaded other oil companies not to buy oil from Iran, enforcing an effective boycott on Iranian oil.  Other oil producers increased production.  Increasingly difficult economic situation in Iran, accompanied by increasing political unrest as Mossadeq and the Shah struggled over control of policy and the military.  Mossadeq looked to the Tudeh (Communist) Party of Iran for support.

                        --Truman Administration had urged the British to find some accommodation between BP and Iran, to avoid crisis.  With new Eisenhower Administration, there was more willingness for US to get directly involved, on grounds that Mossadeq was increasingly in league with Communist forces.  (Extent of that Mossadeq-Communist cooperation in fact is open to dispute.) 

                        --In league with British secret service (MI6), CIA worked with Iranian officers loyal to the Shah to depose Mossadeq in 1953.  The plot almost went awry, as Mossadeq refused to accept the Shah’s order of his dismissal, and the Shah left the country.  Units of the military were mobilized under US and British plans, along with street mobs mobilized out of mosques by religious leaders who feared the growth of Communist power in the country (they received funds from US and UK to facilitate the mobilization).  In the end the royalist forces gained control of Teheran, Mossadeq was arrested and the Shah returned to the capital.  US aid – military and civilian – increased to Iran, and Iran became a centerpiece of US Cold War strategy.

CONCLUSION:  So with the end of WWII, we see the weakening of the imperial position of both France and Britain, and the entrance into the region in a major way of the United States and, to a lesser extent, the Soviet Union.  The concentration of the US from a strategic perspective was on the “northern tier” of the region, bordering the Soviet Union, and on the oil-rich area of the Gulf.  However, as these events were unfolding, in another area of the Middle East the decline of British imperial power was creating a new crisis, in which the United States, the Soviet Union and all the regional powers were becoming enmeshed.  Next lecture – the climax of the crisis in Palestine and the creation of the state of Israel.