Steph Steeves

11/16/06

TAP Greek Tragedy

The Role of Women in Greek Tragedy

While Greek tragedy is rich in female characters, there is a paradox between the women shown in Classical plays and the lives real Greek women led. The great tragedians used their plays to show a moral code all Greek citizens were to follow, so much can be learned by how the women in them were represented. Whether good or ill came of it, these plays asked questions and presented possibilities that reflected on the reality of daily life for women.

The Roots of Tragedy

The beginnings of tragedy arose from religious festivals, particularly in Minoan Greece, around 1100 BC. At that time, women were included in these rituals and played the part of goddesses, as it was custom to wear a costume during these festivals. The goddess was the most important character represented, and like in later Greek plays, provided an example of a moral life to the audience.

Yet in the 700 years between the Minoan culture and Classical Greece, society changed, and with it the ideal of women’s traditional roles. There is no specific date or law to reason why this change occurred, but rather many factors contributed to this new cultural morality. While once it was a goddess who represented fertility and the rites associated with it, that role now fell to the male Dionysus. The City Dionysia festival was centered on men, with all male actors, priests, and writers. Women were relegated to the Lenaea, a lesser comedic festival in Athens, where they were able to play a more prominent role. The role of the maenads, who were female followers of Dionysus, was also lessened in tragedy. Called “wild ones”, they could not be reasoned with and wandered the forest dancing and drinking wine. They were replaced with satyrs (as in the satyr plays), who did the same thing but were male, as this was more acceptable. Even Athena, the patron goddess of Athens, was unsexed- she had no mother, born only from Zeus, and was a perpetual virgin. There was also a new focus regarding the Amazons of myth, who so fascinated the Greek audience for their role reversal of women as warriors and men as caretakers of the children and home. They were known as “more men for their courage than women for their sex”, yet in tragedy Amazons were now vanquished by every great mythic hero. Most notably, the founder-hero of Athens, Theseus, won a battle with the Amazons at the Acropolis, effectively destroying this representation of the old religion and social order. His name derives from the Greek word for “institution” and he is credited with founding the male-centered democracy in Athens.

Aeschylus’ The Oresteia is a perfect example of how this change in perspective may have come about; if not to show actual events, but to make an allusion to a new way of thinking. When Orestes is acquitted in the trial for killing his mother, this decision is the beginning of a new form of law that elevates the husband as ruler, and ends the formerly matriarchal society (naturally, represented by no judicial system and monarchy government, both negatively viewed by the Athenians). Clytemnestra had ruled while her husband was gone, and the chorus, seeing she had done well, says she speaks “like a wise man” (403). But now her murder has been justified by the gods, which displaces women from politics and turns them to the family instead, much like the Erinyes go from old and powerful goddess of revenge to figures that bless marriage and the home. Athena states this new feeling, as she adds her vote to Orestes’ side, saying “I wholeheartedly approve the male- I am entirely my father’s child,” (856-7).

Marriage and Citizenship

These changes in drama came about as democracy rule replaced the tyrants of monarchy. In drama it was Thebes’ monarchy that was seen as corrupt, Argos with a middle ground of tyranny and democracy, and Athens as the ideal city-state. With democracy came a new economy based on individuals controlling their own family wealth, and although this took place in the women’s domain of the home, it was still controlled by men. In the fifth century, Sodon, a lawmaker in Athens, set down as law that women should be confined to the house, perpetuating this idea of men working and participating as citizens while women ran the home and cared for children. The writer Xenophon summarized these ideas regarding women in his book Oikonomikos, written in 370 BC. He states that “god from the first adapted the woman’s nature, I think, to the indoor and man’s to the outdoor tasks and cares,” thereby giving these laws religious as well as political reasoning. Laws were very strict, not necessarily to be purely sexist but rather as a tactic to ensure Athens’s survival. All of Greece was constantly at war, so in such insecure times every aspect of society that could be controlled was. It was thought that men who ruled their homes well could rule the city well, so to keep this precarious position, no women were allowed to participate in any kind of rule. Athens was divided into citizens (all male) non citizens (foreigners and women) and then slaves. However, women were considered citizens in one sense- Pericles wrote that both parents of a child must be citizens in order for the child to be considered a citizen.

Marriage was seen not in romantic terms, but rather to have children and keep one’s social class. The wife was not entitled to have her own life or career, but rather to support her husband in all he did. Aristotle wrote in On a Good Wife, “a woman of a well ordered life should consider that her husband’s wishes are as laws appointed for her by divine will”, and explains how it is the husband’s duty to “train” his wife in these matters, as was her father’s to arrange a good marriage. It is fitting, then, that the Greek word for marriage is translated to mean “loan”. However, the wife was an essential part of the family in Greek tragedy, as well as a source of conflict when she went against her husband’s wishes. Penelope in the Odyssey was seen as the ideal wife, loyal and submissive, in tune to her husband’s desires. Xenophon also comments on this, saying that god made men more courageous and women more fearful and affectionate, since they took care of the children. In fact, to show compassion or fearfulness in a tragedy was to have a character deemed “womanly”. Men as warriors was a well established idea in tragedy, encompassing a long list of heroes from Odysseus to Herakles, all of whom left their homes to fight battles, leaving their worried wives at home with the children.

Sex, in and of itself, was seen as a trap for unsuspecting men, and women were thought to use it as a weapon to cause trouble. This loss of power through temptation was a great worry for men and was expressed, for example, through the myth of Pandora. To punish the mortals, Zeus made a woman, Pandora (“all gifted”), who released all the evils of the world onto Ephemetheus, who could not resist her beauty. Euripides also expanded upon this idea of sexuality in the character of Phaidra, but dared to make her a sympathetic character. This was difficult, as a sensual woman was automatically seen as suspect in real life or tragedy. She is defined by her lust for Hippolytus, who fittingly hates the very idea of women, as shown through his words to her, “let me set you straight about women. Men chase their glitter, but it’s all fake” (940-1). In the original version of the play Phaidra lost all of her dignity and was reduced to nothing because of this lust. The moral of this play then could be read as a warning against passion, which destroys all sense and morality, as well as proving the weakness of women.

Democracy and Theater

It was only men that were allowed to participate in Greek democracy, serving as part of the Assembly of Eligible Citizens, which made all new governmental decisions, on the Council of 500, who carried out the decisions, or most importantly to tragedy, on juries. The jury members were drawn from a lottery and composed of men over thirty. During the trial they heard speeches from the defendant and prosecutor and then met to decide a conviction. Speechwriters, called logographos, could be hired by a defendant to write a convincing speech to influence the jury’s verdict. This compared to being in the audience of a theater, where the tragedies were composed of speeches as the characters defended their actions. The tragedy speeches were even organized the same as a public speech would be- a proem (preface), narrative, proof, and then a conclusion. In classical Greece, rhetoric was an art and formal discipline; boys could even go to school to study the rhetoric and become a public speaker. Whereas girls were not often educated, boys whose families could afford an education went to a specific school to learn to read and write, often studying literature, such as the works of Homer. These plays were chosen specifically to teach the boys about how to live a moral life, an idea that would be reinforced later when they went to the theater.

It stands to reason that Greece was a very oral culture- books were meant to be read aloud, as the small houses and no artificial lights made it difficult to read for pleasure at home. Myths were passed down from generation to generation by word of mouth, but were often updated to suit contemporary life and politics. Therefore, the audience was accustomed to plays consisting of mostly conversation and speeches, with violence and action occurring off stage. Actors trained their voices hard, for although the acoustics in Greek theaters were quite sophisticated, in an open air space of up to 14,000 people, the voice had to be able to carry a long distance. An actor in the fifth century could be famous for his voice alone, and often actors played multiple characters, as there were only three actors per play. Costumes were also worn to show who a character was, but it was often announced vocally when a specific person entered or showed some emotion, such as crying, which may not be visible to all the audience. In fact, a possible function of the mask was to act as a megaphone to project voices to those in the back of the theater. The critic Pollux termed “women voiced” as a failing in actors, and it was said that Sophocles, with his weak voice, could not act in his own plays.

It was the state that put on these plays, hiring and paying the actors. The chorus also was composed of Greek citizens who volunteered to be in the plays as their civic duty. They were selected during an audition and trained for the role for nearly a year. The choregus, who took on the expense of the chorus instead of paying taxes, was also a citizen, and all were trained by the writer. Therefore, it was quite possible then that a significant number of the audience had already been in a play before, and knew the logistics of speaking and acting. If the lines were not said correctly, the audience was well aware and would yell insults to the actors, or even throw things on stage. The judge, although having sworn an oath to be honest (much like in court) was often swayed by the audiences’ reactions to the performance.

Women in the Theater

All of this leads up to possible reasons why women were excluded from Greek theater, despite being so well represented in the plays themselves. Acting was a very physical job, as the actors had to sing and dance at the same time for hours on end, and as stated previously, women were seen as physically weak. Also, watching a play in the theater was not a leisure pursuit, it was a man’s responsibility as a citizen. Theater then was a function of democracy, and being in the chorus or audience was an aspect of this participatory democracy in Greece. In fact, the Greek word for theater, theatron, means “to view as spectators”, showing the important role of the audience. Women had no place in this, and as they were not often literate may not have been as familiar with the plays as men were, or as knowledgeable about the events or references to politics that were spoken of. However, it is interesting to note that in many comedies by Aristophanes, the female characters often know enough about politics and government to misuse them, or to take over fully and do a better job of it than the men. Although this may be pure fiction, it is also possible that women were not as fully excluded from governmental decisions as men would like to believe.

Many plays had important messages regarding success and personal achievement, a foreign concept to Greek women, who did not own anything and had little control over spending or gaining money. Characters in the plays, although set in mythic times, reflected modern values, such as the importance of reputation and material gain, as well as the idea of war as an opportunity to gain both.

There is much controversy over whether women were even allowed in the audience of a play at all. It stands to reason that they were not; as they were not allowed in any other aspect of drama, and most importantly had no reason to watch a drama and learn about choice and consequence, as they never had that option in their own lives. Yet there is an ancient reference that when the Erinyes of Aeschylus’ Oresteia appeared on stage, they were so frightening in appearance that women in the audience fainted or had miscarriages. If they were in fact allowed to watch the plays, it is likely they would have sat in the back of the theater with the other non citizens.

It is interesting to wonder what women in the audience may have thought watching these plays, because the women in them were played by men and represented what men thought of women. In effect, women were suppressed in real life, only to be represented in a fictionalized version on stage, playing out what may happen if that were not so. But in each tragedy there is a message of how traditional women should dress, act, and speak. Aristotle says in his Poetics that tragic characters must be brave, clever, and good, and must be of the first class, but it would not be right to have a woman in that position. The female roles often were used for dramatic impact, to show the consequences of going against the social norm. Many men in tragedies use analogies of taming wild animals when referring to women, especially when they acted improperly. For example, in The Oresteia, the chorus speaks of Helen as “that spear bride, source of killing…and on her heels, fast on the scent of blood-strife, many shield bearing huntsmen followed,” (780-92). Women characters were not to express extreme emotion, and to act with dignity always. Primary characters, often male, were meant to be strong, organized, and commanding, while secondary female characters acted more like the traditional submissive female.

However, tragedians tended to switch these gender roles, exploring the contradictions and tensions of Greek society on the safety of the stage. Antigone, whose name means either “born against” or “anti generation”, is a perfect example of this. The play Antigone has been called as “a meditation on unthinkable change and the terms in which it might in fact be possible,” (Holland). Around the time Sophocles wrote the play, women’s one traditional role outside of the home was in the funeral ceremony, but new laws in Athens meant to stop large shows of wealth were attempting to do away with the public mourning practice. Antigone blatantly goes against male authority, as her woman’s reasoning was based on her own moral code of the importance of relationships, not the law. Her most famous lines, directed at Creon, are “I cannot side with hatred. My nature sides with love” (523), strong words typical of a male character showing conviction in their beliefs. She does not listen to Creon, will not give in, and dies for her cause. This may have caused nervousness in the audience, who sympathized with Creon in the sense that he was upholding traditional male/female roles, as well as attempting to stop civil war. Yet Antigone, in going against a tyrant and showing loyalty to her family, as well as stopping the curse, may have won some applause as well. Ismene was much more the typical woman, afraid to openly resist men, and submitting readily to Creon’s authority, but Antigone’s loyalty and bravery were admirable qualities, which is why she is still seen as a beacon to feminists today.

Conclusion

Tragedies often focused on social issues in the Greek family, especially the conflict between men and women. Played out as it was on stage, it was far enough removed from ordinary life that the writer could explore situations and their consequences that may not necessarily occur in real life, but could provoke discussion. These often included role reversal between men and women and the tension it caused, as well as how it could be remedied. I had read that this status quo was never questioned in real life (Katz), yet to be such a prevalent topic in tragedy, how could it not be on every Greek’s mind, and how could these plays not provoke discussion outside of the theater? Greek tragedy is preoccupied with male/female conflict, so it is possible these ideas shown in the tragedies spilled over (or were inspired by) real life society and politics. For the three days of the City Dionysia festival, watching unorthodox female characters on the stage, the men (and possibly women) in the audience must have had some reaction, however brief, to this spectacle. Just as strong female characters interest and inspire us now; it is likely they did the same for both sexes in Classical Greece, provoking discussion that would last through modern times.

Works Cited

Ancient History Sourcebook. Xenophon: On Men and Women and Aristotle: On a Good Wife. http://www.fordham.edu/HALSALL/ANCIENT/

xenophon-genderroles.html (or /greek-wives.html)

Note: Has translations of the work of Xenophon and Aristotle, pertaining to the view of women in Classical Greece.

Arnott, Peter D. Public and Performance in the Greek Theater. Routledge, 1989.

Note: Discussed the possibilty of women in the audience of theater, as well as examples from tragedy of women characters and their personalities. Useful information about speech in tragedy and watching drama as a civic duty.

Case, Sue-Ellen. Classic Drag: The Greek Creation of Female Parts. Theater Journal, Vol 37. JSTOR. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0192-2882%28198510%2937%3A3%3C317%3ACDTGCO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-8

Note: Article on the history of suppression of women in Greece, and its effect on women characters in theater. References ancient writers.

Holland, Catharine A. After Antigone: Women, the Past, and the Future of Feminist Political Thought. American Journal of Political Science, Vol 42. JSTOR.

http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0092-5853%28199810%2942%3A4%3C1108%3AAAWTPA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-R

Note: Discusses the treatment of women in tragedy (not much information about real life), especially regarding The Oresteia and Antigone. From a feminist point of view. Explains why these female characters are still relevant.

Katz, Marilyn. The Drama of Social Life and The Politics of Social Life.

http://mkatz.web.wesleyan.edu/daughters_of_demeter/daughters_of_demeter.htm

Note: Five page article discussing all aspects of Greek life, tragedy, and poltics. Very useful, especially the section on the preoccupation of male/female conflict and reasons for this theory.

Kluth, Fredrick John. Women in Ancient Greek Drama: Introduction. http://www.fjkluth.com/gdrama.html

Note: Brief one page article that gives good background information about Minoan Greece, specifically the rise of theater and women’s decreasing role in drama, while still being represented on stage.

Walcot, Peter. Greek Tragedy in its Theaterical and Societal Context. University of

Wales Press, 1976.

Note: Very helpful book, detailing every aspect of Greek theater (focusing

especially on the spoken word) and its effect on society. The section “Drama and Social Values” (p. 76-93) was most useful regarding women.