Jacques Bailly's guidelines for writing papers and short essays, making oral presentations, and formulating interesting questions.

Guidelines for writing papers

1. Citations: Use in-line citations with the last name of the author(s) or editor(s) and page number in parentheses immediately after the relevant passage, for example (Mayer19) or (Mayer and Mayer 19-20). If there is no author for an article use the title in quotations instead for example ("Dewey Defeats Truman" 1). If an author has more than one work you refer to, put the date of publication in brackets (e.g., (Mayer [1990] 700))
2. References: Assigned readings for the course do not need to appear in a separate list of references. The in-line citation will suffice for these cases. If you use other sources you need to provide a list of references at the end of your paper. Use a style manual to check the format for this or ask me.
3. Spell Check: Run your paper through a spell check program before submitting it. Do not simply let the computer correct whatever it wants to correct: it is a machine and has no brain, so you must use yours to decide whether it is correct.

Guide to Writing Short Essays

CONTENT:

• 1. ACCURACY: Facts as well as the arguments of others must be accurate and used accurately. Do not quote out of context in a way that changes the meaning. Double check references; do not rely on memory.
• 2. THINK BEFORE WRITING: Identify your position. Explore its implications. Examine your arguments. Challenge your own position. Defend it from challenge. Unravel separate topics within your position. Push beneath the surface: what are your real reasons for thinking that? What assumptions are your reasons based on? Are your assumptions arguable? Argument means using premises to arrive at conclusions. You should argue.
• 3. HAVE A CLEAR THESIS: Your thesis should do two things: stake out your position and identify your main points. Let the reader know right away what you think and why. Your thesis should provide a "game plan" for the reader to follow. There is no added drama in surprising a reader with some twist as there would be in a mystery story. A good thesis will outline/organize your paper for you. It may not always be the first thing you write, but everything in your essay should relate to it pretty directly.
• 4. ORGANIZE YOUR WRITING: Assume your reader is not particularly interested in what you have to say - usually a safe assumption. Be as interesting as you can be, but above all explain yourself clearly! It's your job to make your ideas clear to the reader, not the reader's job to make sense of your writing. Form an outline of the paper before you write at all, after you write a few exploratory paragraphs, or as you write: have a plan and keep it up to date as your paper changes. Identify your topic and your thesis clearly in the first paragraph; the reader should know from the start what is at issue. Avoid digressions, especially in a short paper.
• 5. KEEP THE LOGIC TIGHT: Develop your discussion in a logical, step-by-step manner. The first step should lead to the second, which should lead to the third . . . . Make each step as clear, short, and specific as possible. Complete one step before going on to another. Don't let the reader fill in any logical steps for herself: she will not do it the way you expect. If you're not sure what you are saying, stop, think it through, and figure out another, more specific way to say it.
• 6. REWRITE: Every paper needs at least one thorough rewrite. In other words, once you have completed a full version of the paper, read it from start to finish from the beginning. Make corrections, additions, and clarifications. Rearrange for continuity. Weed out needless repetition and digressions. Read it carefully and ask yourself if you could say what you want in a simpler or clearer way. Ask someone else to read it and see if they understand it. Take a break, sleep on it if you have time, and then reread it. Does it still make sense?

STYLE:

• 1. SPELLING: Proofread. If in doubt, check the dictionary. Get someone else to proofread. If still in doubt, substitute words that are easier to spell.
• 2. PUNCTUATION: Review the general rules for punctuation usage. Commas are a common problem. A good collegiate dictionary usually has such rules.
• 3. PARAGRAPHS: Paragraphs divide a train of thought into manageable cars. If a paragraph is over a page long, it should probably be divided. Each paragraph should have a beginning, a middle, and an end all related to each other in some obvious way. Divide only where there is a good separation point; if you cannot find one and the paragraph still seems long, maybe it needs to be rewritten to create a good dividing point.
• 4. CITATIONS and QUOTATIONS: These are devices enabling the reader to check your assertions and to give them credibility.
  QUOTATIONS should be used only if it is important to use the author's actual words. Be sure to use the author's exact words. Direct quotations longer than a couple of sentences should start on a new line, be single spaced, have each line indented, be word for word, and give the page number. Quotation marks are unnecessary in this case. Always provide citations with page numbers for quotations.
  Quotations are not usually the best option: most of the time, you should use your own words to PARAPHRASE the author. Always provide citations for paraphrases.
  CITATIONS consist of sufficient information for the reader to find the passage you are citing. Your own opinion, or facts that are common knowledge to the average person, need no citations. Anything little known or controversial needs a citation. If you assert something about an author, the more specific your assertion, the more specific the citation should be. For example, broad statements about the content of a written work should be cited with an in-line citation of the name of the author(s), but page numbers are not necessary. Summaries of themes of particular chapters with a book should be identified by author and chapter as well. Quotations, paraphrases of specific statements from the a book or article, and specific facts should give the author and the page number(s) too.
• 5. TITLES: Book titles should be underlined or italicized, chapter titles and journal or magazine articles put in quotes.
• 6. SEXIST LANGUAGE: Avoid using "man" and "he" as generics for both males and females. This is not a matter of politics for me: it is a vital skill all writers need in today's world.
• 7. MUSHY WORDS: Essays express thought, not feelings. Do not say "I feel" when you should say "I think" or "I believe" or "I conclude." Do not say "the author feels" or "the author seems to think" but either "the author states" or "the author implies." In general, when you state an opinion, it is clear enough that you think it, and so there is no need for words such as "I think."
• 8. ALWAYS KEEP A COPY OF YOUR ESSAY: preferably both a printed copy and an electronic copy.

Guidelines for Oral Presentations

• 1. Consider Your Audience. What is their current level of knowledge of the subject? If possible, convey to them information they haven't heard before, or weren't aware of.
• 2. Practice. At a minimum, review your notes a few times before your presentation. If you have not done many presentations before, practice before a knowledgeable friend who is willing to help you correct any problems, or else tape or videotape your practice sessions and review them yourself. Be sure to use the actual notes you will use in the presentation: do not assume that your latest revisions will work well. Practice them.
• 3. Be Positive. If you maintain at least the appearance of confidence in your own ability, you'll reassure your audience and everyone, yourself included, will enjoy the presentation more.
• 4. Avoid Reading. Insofar as possible, give your presentation extemporaneously from notes, rather than reading through pages and pages of material.
• 5. Be Organized. State your main point up front and at the end of your presention. In addition, outline your major points for your audience up front, so they know where you are going with your talk. When you are interrupted (and you will be), be sure to keep track of where you were and try to stay in charge of the session.
• 6. When you must present theoretical or abstract material, use specific examples, perhaps including a few humorous anecdotes, to enliven the presentation. Give the audience some solid facts to latch onto.
• 7. When feasible, and relevant, visual aids can be a helpful addition to your presentation. Examples could include handouts, charts, transparencies, slides. However, avoid using extensive aids that might consume too much of your time. Your remarks, not the audio-visual aids, should be the prime source of attention. Selective use of aids will increase audience attention and understanding.
• 8. Keep as much eye contact with members of your audience as possible. Gauge their reaction to your presentation and adjust accordingly. If you are a shy person, one way to begin this practice is to look slightly above the eye level of members of the audience. In most cases, they will not notice the difference. However, there is no real substitute for developing genuine eye contact.
• 9. Involve Your Audience. Among ideas for involving your audience: have them write down their ideas about a question somewhere near the start of your presentation. Then you can ask anyone what he or she wrote. You can also ask them whether what they wrote was covered at the end. If you get them to write something down, then you can pull them easily into the conversation.
• 10. Be relaxed, conversational (unless the occasion is extremely formal), and succinct. Above all, be yourself.

"Interesting" Questions:

Truly interesting questions do one or more of the following:

• Show that you read and understood the material.
• Make connections to other aspects of the course, your life, humanity . . .
• Identify a real problem with the reading: possibly a contradiction, an omission, flawed reasoning, etc.
• Expand our horizons beyond the confines of that week, this course, or UVM.
• Have something that just cannot be expressed, predicted, mandated, or described about them: it makes them "interesting."