Darrah Lustig

Final Exam-AIS 096

Europe:  Conceptualizing a Continent

In the struggle to assign Europe a collective identity, it is necessary to ascertain not only what the term “European” entails but what it does not.  Anthony Pagden details the history of the continent which has advanced past simple “geographical expression” (Pagden, 33).  He attempts to illustrate the discrepancies between the contemporary conceptions of Europe and its past cultural, religious and geographic exchanges with other communities that contribute to the ambiguity of the concept of “European.”  Pagden concentrates on the overwhelming Asian influence that contributed to the foundation of Europe; he considers the role of Christianity as a cohesive tool of national unification; and he contemplates the physical boundaries that constitute Europe, all in an effort to illuminate “features of what might count as a collective ‘idea’ of Europe as a political and cultural domain” (Pagden, 1).

Pagden maintains that Europe cannot take responsibility for its own invention.  He asserts that “Europe, which will fashion itself for generations in opposition to Asia, has always owed to Asia its historical origins” (Pagden, 35).  According to popular mythology, Europa, an Asian woman, lends her name to the continent.  On the political frontier, Europe’s close proximity to Asia provided Europe with the impetus toward cultural distinction and competition which necessitated Europe’s dissociation from its oriental neighbor in order to make progress in other arenas.  Lastly, Christianity has its roots in Asia where Jesus Christ, the religious symbol and main fixture of Christianity, was born.  “Thus an abducted Asian woman gave Europe her name; a vagrant Asian exile gave Europe its political and finally its cultural identity; and an Asian prophet gave Europe its religion” (Pagden, 35), which gives Asia the distinction of being the source of the founding principles of Europe.

Christianity is not a product of Europe though it provides the continent with much of its unifying force.  “Christianity was to provide Europe with much of its subsequent sense of both internal cohesion and its relationship with the rest of the world” (Pagden, 35).  Christianity acted as a both an instrument of unification, by extending a religious umbrella over a vast number of culturally distinct people, and a link to the outside, non-European world by way of religious zeal and efforts in conversion.  The Crusades are an example of religious integrity implemented by different people who shared a common system of beliefs and were willing to unite in order to fight against their opposition.  “Europe, even now, is indebted more to Christianity than to any other influence for the union…which survives among her members” (Pagden, 43).  To this day Christianity remains a strong binding force in Europe, though religion has evolved over time to include variations from the source.

The physical borders that define the area that is Europe have been the cause of much concern and debate.  Though Europe was not actually at the center of the world, “it still could be placed at the center of some other conceptualization of the environment” (Pagden, 36).  Europe exists as the figurative “midway” (Pagden, 36) between the two extremes of the north and the south of the world.  This suggests the belief that the north is constituted by uncivilized warlike people while the south is made up of intelligent yet lethargic inhabitants who do not deserve to be associated with the highly cultivated and self-proclaimed “civilized” entity that is Europe.  Russia, a northern power, “has always been incorporated into Europe imperfectly” (Pagden, 47) while “the barbarians” who gather in “unenlightened herds” (Pagden, 49) in Asia are likewise deemed inappropriate for European integration.  The institution of, and subsequent action taken by, the European Union has disrupted the pattern of European assimilation as Turkey, an eastern country, has become a candidate for entry.  It seems clear that “no one has ever been quite certain where its frontiers lie” (Pagden, 45) because Europe exists as an attitude and “a shared way of life” (Pagden, 46) more than a concrete delineation of states.  European nation-states share a common political system that has its roots in imperialism and monarchical rule and a shared interest in preserving distinctive cultural values prevalent in each of these nation-states.  Therefore, Russia is exiled based on its past of tyrannical leadership and communism, and Eastern and Asian states are excluded based upon their severe differences in religious and cultural practices.

It is very interesting to reflect on material that we discussed in the beginning of the semester because I am much more knowledgeable about the subject at the close of the year.  One of our first class discussions revolved around our perceptions of Europe, which amounted to many stereotypical accusations of pretentiousness and arrogance.  Other ideas which people contributed related to the history of individual countries like the French Revolution or world events like World War I and II.  Later in the year, during Professor Meaghan Emory’s presentation about French affairs, the class had a chance to discuss our perceptions of France.  Again, though we did not speak about Europe, our estimations included stereotypical visions of outdoor cafes and cigarettes along with the feeling that the French consider themselves superior to other people.  Personally, my thoughts about France at this time had to do with its history:  the French Revolution; the Franco-Prussian War; The Paris Commune; and the Paris Peace Conference. 

Throughout the course of this class, I have come to believe that the history of European countries (taking into account both the historical development of the individual countries and their interaction and collective evolution) is more pertinent in assigning Europe a collective identity today because it is the combined history of each country that provides the incentive for the European Union.  The history of each European country is very closely related.  Exchanges of land, the formation of allies, the conquest of land and peoples, the internal battle for domination – these are all activities in which every European country engaged.  The Treaty of Versailles, overseen by European great powers, ordered Germany’s return of Alsace-Lorraine to France; numerous alliances were formed between European countries over many decades during times of peace and times of war; many countries tried to acquire land forcefully; and European countries united against Napoleon at the start of the nineteenth century and the powerful actions of Germany during World Wars I and II.  Each of these activities resulted in cultural exchanges between countries and a shared history of political turmoil which unite these same countries against repeating their mistakes under the surveillance of the European Union.

The European Union, though it does not include all the countries located upon the continent of Europe, assigns geographical, political and economic continuity between the countries which belong to it.  At the same time, the European Union threatens the survival of the cultures that define individual countries.  Cherise, whose seminar paper The European Union and the Cheese Scandal explores the cultural losses that the European Union inadvertently inflicts upon its members, focuses on cheese as a cultural symbol.  Cherise maintains that the European Union aims to standardize food production, but in so doing, this entity is eradicating cultural identity by deeming certain food processes indigenous to individual European countries as unsanitary and unsafe, though their methods have been in practice for many years.  Accordingly, “mom-and-pop” ventures that cannot afford the cost of the machinery that the European Union expects each establishment to utilize are suffering, and countries are losing components of their individuality.  Though cheese does not seem to be as serious an issue as the regularization of currency, it represents the theme of standardization of processes and expectations within the European Union that threatens to stifle culture.  

At the beginning of this course, my perceptions of Europe were highly romanticized and idealized.  The countries that came to mind when I thought of Europe were Austria, Germany, Switzerland, France, Spain, England and Ireland.  I did not even consider eastern countries.  After taking this course, and specifically after hearing the presentation made by Aida Sehovic, I realize my mistake, and the mistake that many make, in failing to include the eastern European countries in their perspectives.  Sehovic brought the plight of eastern European countries, and the ignorance of many Americans, to my attention.  The packet which she asked us to read before her visit focused on the misconceptions which surround the Bosnian war due to the “fog of ignorance and the smokescreen of propaganda” (Malcolm, xxii) that the Western media purveys because we do not know any better.  The passion which she has for her country, made evident by the art installation which she created in order to commemorate the national tragedy in Bosnia, was intoxicating.  Today, though Turkey is a candidate for entry, the European Union fails to recognize many eastern countries, as does the rest of the world.  Sehovic was visibly upset when she spoke about Europe and the U.S.’ lack of involvement in Bosnia during the war.  Five years of terrible war raged and the country was left to fend for itself. 

Pagden maintains that, for some, “’European’ identity is, at best, an illusion” (Pagden, 33) and that “the European Union and-should it ever come about-the ‘United States of Europe’ will surely come closer than any political order has ever done before to establishing just what it means to be a ‘European’” (Pagden, 54).  I agree with this assessment.  It is hard to articulate what is “European.”  It is easier to decide what is not European, or what does not contribute to a greater classification, but neither culminates in an accurate or sound definition of “European.”  The European Union comes very close to assigning Europe with consistent features and commonalities.  However, the European Union discriminates against eastern countries and that is an imperfection of the system.  At the same time, it is understandable because the purpose of the European Union is to systematize politics and integrate national economies in order to prevent intra-warfare.  The fact that this political and economic cooperation excludes countries like Russia and Bosnia is unfair but also understandable.  At one time, Germany was divided into West Germany and East Germany.  While West Germany flourished, East Germany struggled under the confines of communism, just as Russia was ruled by communism.  The exile of East Germany and its reintroduction into a greater Europe at the loss of its political affiliation as a “socialist” Germany demonstrates the mission of the European Union very clearly.  It has at its core a uniform political and economic agenda that must be met for success, and with its success, a more lucid definition of what is “European” will be attainable.