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Marcus Mosiah Garvey is one of the worlds most renowned
Black leaders. Garvey was no ordinary man, but one of those rare creatures of
history whose fate it is to be seized with the social and economic oppression
of a people and who see this oppression as his or her own spiritual mission.
No other Black man in history was able to understand so clearly the worldwide
oppressions of Black people, and no other was in turn perceived by so many Blacks
as the one person with the solution to their problems. Although Marcus Mosiah Garvey has long since past, his
presence will never be forgotten. In his own time, he was hailed as a redeemer,
a "Black Moses" who tried to lead his people to freedom, who dared
to dream about and preach black redemption and black pride. He is credited as
the founder of Rastafarianism, and "is second only to Halie Selassie,"
the Rastafari God. He is a legend of his time and continues to live on through
the lyrics of reggae music, inspiring reggae artists around the world. Marcus Mosiah Garvey, Jr. was born in St. Anns Bay
parish of St. Ann, Jamaica on August 17, 1887. He was the youngest of eleven
children born to Marcus Mosiah Garvey Sr., a descendant of the Maroons and Sarah
Jane Richards, a woman of high moral values and a regular churchgoer. Marcuss
mother wanted to name him Moses, as she liked Biblical names for her children,
and had a hunch that this child would become a leader like Moses of old. However,
Marcus Sr. had different thoughts concerning the name of his newborn son. He
thought that the boy should be named after him, and maybe he would become a
Marcus Aurelius, believing in the worth of every human being because "the
Universe has need of them." (I have found contradictory statements of Garveys
fathers name. Some sources say it was Marcus Mosiah Garvey and others
Marcus Aurelius Garvey.) Eventually a compromise was reached and he was baptized
as Marcus Mosiah Garvey, Jr. Garvey spent his childhood in St. Anns Bay, St. Ann,
which was also referred to as the Garden Parish due to its lush vegetation and
good rainfall. He spent his early years learning to swim in the sea, dodging
sharks, fishing and lying in the sun on the beach. As he grew up, he came to
appreciate Roaring River Falls, a wharf where he would sit and observe ships
loading products for Germany and America. He talked with the seamen and became
intrigued by their numerous stories filled with adventure. Garvey attended infant and elementary school in St. Anns
Bay and also received private tuition from his Godfather, Mr. Alfred Burrows.
Garvey was a bright student, showing exceptional dexterity in the areas of history,
mathematics and oratorical skills. Little did he know he would put these skills
to work in his future plans to unite African people's destiny, to encourage
self-sufficiency, while embracing the ideology: "Africa for Africans."
At this point in his life, he knew no difference between black and white; however,
his innocence was soon lost. At fourteen years of age, Garvey was jolted when the white
ministers daughter, a neighbor that Marcus had grown up with and played
with all his life, was sent to school in England and was told by her parents
not to write to him because he was a "nigger." This was something
that Garvey never forgot. It was a stunning awakening to the harsh reality of
the racial discrimination present in Jamaican society. He soon realized that
opportunities for desirable employment, such as training for government jobs,
went to white youths, while black boys became laborers. Garvey affirmed that
"God created all people equal, and to deny this was to insult God Almighty." During the same year, Marcus was sent to learn the printing
trade at his Godfather Burrowss shop. The love of books that he had inherited
from his father was further encouraged during his working days at the printery.
Mr. Burrows had an extensive book collection, which Marcus made full use of.
Garvey also came into contact with Mr. Burrowss old cronies and friends,
who frequently stopped by the printery to discuss politics and social affairs,
reminiscing about the old slave days, plantation stories and slave rebellions.
It was at this point in Garveys life that his lifelong interest in politics
and social affairs began. At age eighteen, in 1906, Garvey moved to Kingston, Jamaica
in search of brighter prospects. He got a job at Benjamins Printery and
by the age of twenty, he had become a master printer and foreman at this company.
In 1908, Garvey had his first experience in labor organization when the printers
went on strike for better wages. Garvey joined them in spite of being offered
higher wages himself. When the strike proved to be unsuccessful, Marcus lost
his job and was blacklisted, which banned him from working in a private printery.
However, with his expertise of the printing business, he soon found employment
at the Government Printing Office. In 1910, Garvey joined the National Club of Jamaica, a
political club that provided him with his first experience in newspaper publishing
and campaigning for a political candidate. He was elected Secretary and published
the pamphlet, The Struggling Mass. Two of the members, J. Coleman Beecher
and S.M. DeLeon, were asked what impressed them most about Garvey, and they
replied: He was fiercely proud of being black. He carried a pocket
dictionary with him and said he studied three or four words daily, and
in his room he would write a paragraph or two using these words. (Beecher) He had a mature mind from the time he came to Kingston
in his teens. He was always busy, planning and doing something for the
underprivileged youth. Uplift work we called it, and he had us in the
shaft with him. (DeLeon) During the same year, Garvey left Jamaica for Costa Rica
where he worked as a timekeeper on a banana plantation while staying with an
uncle. As he observed the conditions under which his fellow blacks worked, he
became determined to change the lives of his people. In referring to Gods
relationship with humanity, Garvey wrote: When God breathed into the nostrils of man the breath
of life, He made him a living soul, and bestowed upon him the authority
of "Lord of Creation." He never intended that an individual
should descend to the level of a peon, a serf, or a slave, but that he
should be always man in the fullest possession of his senses and with
the truest knowledge of himself. But how changed has man become since
creation? We find him today divided into different classes the
helpless imbecile, the dependant slave, the servant and master. These
different classes God never created. He created man. Garvey left Costa Rica and traveled throughout Central America,
working and observing the working conditions of blacks throughout the region.
His travels included Guatemala, Panama, Nicaragua, Bocas-del-Toro, Ecuador,
Chile, and Peru. In all of these Spanish-speaking republics were West Indian
workers who had left their overpopulated islands because of unemployment and
poverty. He was soon to find that everywhere, blacks were experiencing great
hardships. Whenever Garvey could, he published a little paper to voice
the migrants feelings and views. In Costa Rica it was called La Nacionale,
in Panama La Prensa. However, the people were unable to conceptualize
the importance of upkeeping a paper and an organization for their own protection
and interests. Garvey persisted and became harassed by the authorities and they
labeled him as an agitator. Garvey returned to Jamaica after two years and said,
"he felt sick at heart." He brought the sufferings of the West Indian
workers before the governor of Jamaica but his cry for help "fell on deaf
ears." In 1912, Garvey left Jamaica and sailed to England, where
his only surviving sister, Indiana, lived. It was in London that he learned
a lot about African culture and also became interested in the conditions of
blacks in the United States. Garvey began taking part in the free-for-all Speakers
Corner in Londons Hyde Park, regularly visiting the House of Commons,
and attending lectures at Birksbeck College. At the same time, Garvey befriended
Duse Muhammad, an Egyptian nationalist who published a paper called The African
and Orient Review. It was through his friendship with Muhammad that he gained
an international perspective of the struggles of African people all over the
world. While in London, Garvey also read Booker T. Washingtons
autobiography and other works by the American activist and educator. Garvey
wrote, "I read of conditions in America. I read Up From Slavery,
and then my doom if I may so call it of being a race leader dawned
upon me." Although it had been four decades since the abolition of slavery
in the United States, many still considered blacks an inferior race. Garvey
began to ask unanswerable questions: "Where is the black mans government?
Where is his king and kingdom? Where is his President, his country and ambassador,
his army, his navy, his men of big affairs? I will help to make them,"
he declared. And with that, he headed home to Jamaica. Garvey returned to Jamaica in 1914 with a vision to establish
an organization to "unite all Negro peoples in the world into one great
body to establish a country and government absolutely their own."
Five days after his arrival, the Universal Negro Improvement Association
and African Communities League was born. "Such a name I thought would embrace
the purpose of all black humanity. Thus to the world a name was born, a movement
created, and a man became known," stated Garvey. The organization declared
its motto One God! One Aim! One Destiny! The objectives of the UNIA were synonymous to Marcus Garveys
dreams. First, he wanted a worldwide confraternity of the Black race; second,
he wished to see the development of Africa from a backward, colonial enclave
to a self-supporting giant of which all Blacks could be proud; third, he wanted
to see Africa as a developed Negro nation, a force in world power, and a place
to which all Blacks could return; fourth, he envisioned a Black nation from
which Black representatives were to be sent to all the principle countries and
cities of the world; fifth, he wanted to see the development of Black educational
institutions for the teaching of Black cultures; and last he wanted to work
for the uplifting of the Black race anywhere it was to be found. Although he developed a small following in Jamaica, he
was opposed, criticized, and ridiculed by many, including blacks. The daily
papers wrote of his trip to London and told of his movement. Headlines such
as: "Garvey is crazy: he has lost his head," and "Is that the
use he is going to make of his experience and intelligence?" began appearing
in Jamaican papers. Garvey writes about his opposition: I was openly hated and persecuted by some of these colored
men on the island who did not want to be classified as negroes, but as
white. They hated me even worse than poison. They opposed me every step
I became a marked man, but I was determined that the work should
be done. Garvey was disappointed in the reaction that Jamaicans
had towards the UNIA. In need of funds and support, Garvey wrote to Booker T.
Washington because he was impressed with his views on education and industry.
Washington replied encouraging him to come to America, however, by the time
Garvey raised enough money to make the trip, Washington had passed away. Still
fully determined, Garvey proceeded to America where he thought blacks would
be more eager to improve their status. During this time, WWI was ending, and unsatisfied black people
all over the country were rioting, and the need for a leader to come forward
and inspire them increased. Marcus Garvey would fill that void. Just before Garvey left for the United States, on the eve
of his departure, he is reported to have said in his farewell address, "Look
to Africa for the crowning of a Black King, he shall be the Redeemer."
To the Rastafarians, this king is Halie Selassie, and today, all Rastafarians
revere Marcus Garvey as their inspirer; his picture is prominent in all homes
and cult houses. His speeches are avidly read; songs and poems are written in
his honor and, in the pantheon of the Rastafarians, Marcus Garvey is second
only to Halie Selassie. In March of 1916, Garvey landed in Harlem. Blacks were on the
verge of a major social change. Thousands of blacks, from the West Indies and
the American South, were migrating to New York, however they were quick to find
that even in the North, Negroes were considered second-class citizens. Garvey
started his campaign in Harlem as a soapbox speaker on street corners and was
later allowed use of St. Marks Hall for special meetings. He rallied the
people around him because he was talking about a positive international program,
not just an anti-lynching protest. The UNIAs message of black unity, black pride, and economic
self-sufficiency quickly took root and flourished among a dissatisfied and bitter
people. "Weve got to teach the American Negro blackness," Garvey
preached. "Black ideals, black industry, black United States and black
religion." Today, this message of unity among the black race continues
to be heard through Peter Toshs Africa: Dont care where you come from As long as youre a black man youre an African. Garveys popularity soon grew to a point that could support
his next venture, the formation of another chapter of the UNIA in New York.
However, he first embarked on a yearlong speaking tour of thirty-eight states.
At the end of 1917, Garvey returned to Harlem and during January
of the following year, established the first American branch of the UNIA in
New York. Within a year, the UNIA had branches in thirty-eight states and six
foreign countries, with a following estimated around four million people. Garvey
emerged as the best known, most controversial, and, for many, the most attractive
of a new generation of New Negro Leaders. Garvey spoke of this when asked to
reflect on his past years work: Other races were engaged in seeing their cause through
the Jewish through their Zionist movement and the Irish through
their Irish movement and I decided that, cost what it might, I
would make this a favorable time to see the Negros interest through. Although Garvey thought of himself as a journalist, each of
his attempts at newspaper editing had failed. However, the UNIA had grown so
much that it was a necessity to have a publication through which he could express
his views. The Negro World was the result, and it was successful. As
the movement spread, The Negro World gained circulation and helped recruit
more followers. Within a short span of time, the weekly became one of Harlems
most popular black-owned publications. Parts of the 10-to-16-page paper were
published in French and Spanish for Central American and West Indian readers,
and each edition carried Garveys front-page editorial. By some estimates,
circulation reached 65,000 worldwide and Claude McKay, a contemporary and critic
of Garvey, called the publication "the best-edited colored weekly in New
York." Garvey suggested that in order to achieve independence,
the blacks would first and foremost have to be economically independent. In
an effort to make the blacks economic independence a reality, the UNIA
started the Negro Factories Corporation, a chain of grocery stores, a restaurant,
a steam laundry, a tailor and dressmaking shop, a millenary store and a publishing
house. However, the most important and promising, the Black Star Line Steamship
Corporation, was launched in 1919. The Black Star Line started out as a shipping line to foster
black trade, but Marcus had the ultimate goal of using the four ships that made
up the fleet to implement his "Back to Africa" movement: transporting
black passengers back to the motherland between America, the Caribbean, and
Africa. Garveys "Back to Africa" movement is explained clearly
through the lyrics of Exodus, written by Bob Marley: Open your eyes and look within Are you satisfied With the life youre living We know where were going We know where were from Were leaving babylon Into our fathers land
When Garvey started the company, he financed it by selling
stock to blacks around the country. He advertised in the Negro World
and in leaflets that read, "Let us guide our own destiny" and "Have
you bought your shares in the Black Star Line? If not, please do so today."
Garvey had waged an all-out campaign to raise money, but the Black Star Line
was never financially healthy. In 1920, Marcus Garvey held the first UNIA International Convention
at Madison Square Garden, which significantly altered the course of the association.
It was at this time that the UNIAs Declaration of Rights was adopted,
marking the evolution of the movement into a black nationalist one. Also, by
a unanimous vote, Garvey was elected provisional president of Africa and the
official colors of the movement, Red, Black, and Green were endorsed. The symbolism
of these colors is explained in Rally Round, by Steel Pulse: Rally round the flag, Rally round the red, gold, black, and green. Marcus say, Marcus say, Red for the blood that flowed
like a river Marcus say, Marcus say, Green for the land, Africa Marcus say, Marcus say, Yellow for the gold that they
stole Marcus say, Marcus say, Black from the people they looted
from
In January of 1922, federal agents arrested Garvey, and charged
him with mail fraud. As early as September 1918, Garveys name had appeared
on a report to the Bureau of Investigation. Government surveillance had been
growing right along with Garveys publication of The Negro World.
For years the government had tried to find something to charge Garvey with including
a violation of the Mann Act, the Espionage Act and the Sedition Act. However,
no solid evidence could be found against him. In 1919, bureau headquarters in
Washington instructed its New York office to forward a summary of the Garvey
file and prepare "at the earliest moment, a case for deportation."
However, once again, no government agency had found enough evidence for such
an action. 1919 was also the year that J. Edgar Hoover was appointed the
first director of the Justice Departments new General Intelligence Division,
which was also the head of the Red Scare. Hoovers duties included
monitoring "Negro activities," and he focused in on Garvey, describing
him as "particularly active among the radical elements in New York and
agitating the Negro movement. Unfortunately, however, he has not yet violated
any federal law." Hoovers plan to remove Garvey soon began to take
shape and his investigation switched to searching for possible criminal action
rather than seditious behavior. Hoover received information from an undercover agent in 1921
saying that Garveys movement was in "financial straits" but
that the UNIA was continuing to promote stocks in the Black Star Line. A second
line memo indicated that The Negro World was about to publish a false
advertisement "to be used for the purpose of securing further purchases
for the Black Star Line stock." Desperately trying to raise money, Garveys
officials continued to sell stock, soliciting by mail. Because the Black Star
Line was in financial collapse, Hoover deemed the sales fraudulent and moved
to indict Garvey. Despite witnesses being uncertain and testimonies inconsistent,
Garvey was convicted and sentenced to five years in prison and fined $1,000.
Hoover also suspended all Black Star Line operations. However, Garvey appealed,
acting as his own defense and was set free on bail from New York Tombs Prison
three months after his arrival. Garvey gave a speech before incarceration in
The Tombs Prison: Now, understand me well, Marcus Garvey has entered the
fight for the emancipation of race, the fight for the redemption of a
country. From the silent graves of millions who went down to make me what
I am, I shall make for their memory, this fight that shall leave a glaring
page in the history of man. Two years later, in 1925, the federal appeals court upheld
the conviction of Garvey and it was then that he began to serve his sentence
in a US penitentiary in Atlanta, Georgia. When the US Marshall took Garvey to
prison, one of the officers said, "We have captured the tiger." Garvey
responded, "But my cubs are running wild!" It was here, in the Atlanta
prison that Garvey wrote "African Fundamentalism," which he later
shared with blacks around the world on a speaking tour. Garvey explains this
concept: "African Fundamentalism" seeks to emancipate
the Negro from the thoughts of others who are encouraging him to act on
their opinions and thought. Have your own opinion. Any race that has succeeded
in the world will tell you that their ability to rise above others and
to establish themselves in the world was only made possible through the
fact that they thought and acted for themselves. Because if you act on
the thoughts of others, so long will they remain your superiors
to
let you serve them as slaves. Garvey further explains this concept in a speech titled "Accept
Something Original:" The Creed of "African Fundamentalism" must
be maintained and protected every day. It is a philosophy that is to serve
as a guide to the Negro Peoples of the world. The other peoples do not
live their lives by chance; they have a Creed to guide them. Our race
is the only one that has not done that, and so long as we continue the
slack methods, so long will we be the slaves of the world
."African
Fundamentalism," the Creed of our race. Get a copy tonight, hang
it up on your wall, point your children to it; let them study it; let
them follow it; let it be an inspiration to greater things. Garvey spent two years in jail, writing "African Fundamentalism"
and conjuring up new ideas for the UNIA and the black people of the world. In
1927, President Calvin Coolidge reversed Garveys sentence; however, he
was released into the custody of US Immigration Services and deported to Jamaica.
When he arrived to his homeland, a large crowd met him at Oretts Wharf
in Kingston. A huge procession and band marched to the UNIA headquarters at
Liberty Hall, where Garvey impressed the crowd with his usual impassioned oratory. The Rastafari Elders remember the fight that Marcus Garvey
fought for the emancipation of Blacks through the lyrics of 400 Years: Hail Marcus Mosiah Garvey, Who lead the Black world into reality. Oh, what a Marcus Mosiah Garvey, Jah, Jah give the power of authority
Marcus Garvey never weary, Garvey never fear. He trod it in the prison, and he trod it in the jail. The prophet take the rough road to the mountain top. Unite the poor and needy and protect the handicapped. Once back in Jamaica, Garvey worked hard to rebuild the UNIA
there. He traveled a lot, visiting many branches of the organization in other
West Indian territories and in Central America. In 1928, Garvey left Jamaica
for Europe, where he established European headquarters. He then went on a speaking
tour of Britain, France, Belgium, Germany, and Geneva. He attempted to visit
Canada but was detained in Montreal and deported once again, back to Jamaica. In 1929, Garvey founded the Peoples Political Party,
Jamaicas first modern political party, which included such goals as a
larger share of self-government, protection for native industries, and a legal
aid department for the poor. Garveys return to the Jamaican UNIA headquarters caused
"widespread fragmentation and desertion among branches in the United States."
Although the UNIA convention in Kingston in 1929 was able to "recapture
some of the splendor and enthusiasm of its early Harlem era, the organization
never again amassed a substantial membership." In 1931, Garvey launched the Edelweiss Amusement Company in
Jamaica. This company exemplified the necessity for artists to make a living
from their work and a majority of the entertainment was based on church, school,
and folk entertainment. Garvey himself wrote plays and poems for presentation
here and on Sundays, Garvey conducted a "non-denominational, religious
service." In 1935, Garvey moved to London and in 1937 began a publication
of a series of negative editorials of Halie Selassie and his policies, accusing
him of lack of identification with fellow blacks and of being "visionless
and disloyal to his country." During the same year, he organized The School
of African Philosophy, which would train the future leadership of the UNIA.
In 1940, five years after his arrival in London, Garvey fell
ill. Garvey suffered a stroke in January, which left him partially paralyzed.
He slowly improved under special care, however, he had had pneumonia twice before
and his heart was weak. Garvey spoke of his death when he grew ill: When I am dead, wrap the mantle of the Red, Black, and
Green around me, for in the new life I shall rise with Gods grace
and blessings to lead the millions up the heights of triumph with the
colors you well know. Look for me in the whirlwind. In May, a London reporter, sent out a news release that Garvey
had died and newspapers all over the world carried the news. "As he opened
all his letters and cables," remarks Daisy White, Garveys personal
secretary, "he was faced with clippings of his own obituary and pictures
of himself with deep black borders. After the second day of this pile of shock,
he collapsed in his chair and could hardly be understood after that." Marcus
Garvey steadily grew worse and passed away on June 10, 1940, never having set
foot in Africa. Marcus Garvey was buried in St. Marys Roman Catholic
cemetery in Kensal Green, London. However, on November 13, 1964, the remains
of the Right Excellent Marcus Mosiah Garvey were exhumed in London and reentered
into a special Marcus Garvey Memorial in National Heroes Park in Kingston, Jamaica.
It was here that Garvey was declared Jamaicas first national hero. Marcus Garveys life remains a testimony to his spectacular
ability to capture the popular imagination and move people to a new outlook.
He has lived on through Rastafarians and the lyrics of reggae music, with albums
such as Marcus Garvey and Garveys Ghost by Burning Spear
preserving his unforgettable thoughts and teachings. His movement still represents
liberation from the psychological bondage of racial inferiority. "After
all discount is made," declared a temporary, "after all the tinsel
is brushed away, the fact remains that the grandiose schemes of Marcus Garvey
gave to the race a consciousness such as it had never possessed before."
Bibliography Print Sources Bair, Barbara and Robert A. Hill, Marcus Garvey: Life
& Lessons. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987: pp. xiii-xviii,
7-25, 206-14. Barrett, Leonard E., Sr., The Rastafarians. Boston:
Beacon Press, 1997: pp. 65-7, 80-4. Barrow, Steve and Peter Dalton, Reggae: The Rough Guide.
London: Rough Guides Ltd., 1997. Clarke, John H., Marcus Garvey and the Vision of Africa.
New York: Vintage Books: A division of Random House, 1974: pp. 29-37, 71-6,
139-51, 343-4, 373. Davis, Stephen and Peter Simon. "From the Root of
King David," Reggae International. New York: R&B, 1982:
pp. 59-60. Davis, Stephen and Peter Simon. "The Brotherhood of
Rastafari," Reggae Bloodlines: In Search of the Music and Culture
of Jamaica. New York: De Capo Press, 1992: pp. 63-70. DuCille, Michel. "Black Moses, Red Scare: The Clash
of Marcus Garvey & J. Edgar Hoover." The Washington Post
12 February 1997. Erskine, Noel L., Decolonizing Theology. New Jersey:
Africa World Press, Inc., 1998: pp. 154-65. Hacker, Diana, A Writers Reference, 4th
ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 1999: pp. 267-72, 289-93, 331-43. Hill, Robert A., The Marcus Garvey & UNIA Papers
v 12, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983. Maeder, Jay and Dennis Wepman. "Black Star Marcus
Garvey, 1922." Daily News 19 April 1998. Vincent, Theodore G., The Black Power & The Garvey
Movement. New York: The Ramparts Press, pre 1960. Online Sources "Black Moses, Red Scare: The Clash of Marcus Garvey
& J. Edgar Hoover," Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com/univers
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(8 April 2000). "Fact Sheet on Marcus Garvey," The Marcus
Garvey & UNIA Papers Project, UCLA, <http://www.isop.ucla.edu/mgpp/facts.htm>
(8 April 2000). "Great Men & Women: Marcus Garvey," Jamaicas
Heroes, <http://www.vcsn.com/ ~lemar/jamaica/heroes.html> (8 April
2000). "Historical Facts about Marcus Garvey & the UNIA-ACL,"
UNIA-ACL Homepage, <http://www.unia-acl.org/info/historic.htm>
(6 April 2000). "Marcus Garvey: An Overview," The Marcus Garvey
& UNIA Papers Project, UCLA, <http://www.isop.ucla.edu/mgpp/intro.htm>
(8 April 2000). "Marcus Garvey & the UNIA," The Marcus
Garvey & UNIA Papers Project, UCLA, <http://www.isop.ucla.edu/mgpp/mgunia.htm>
(8 April 2000). "Marcus Garvey & the UNIA-ACL Chronology,"
UNIA-ACL Homepage, <http://www.unia-acl.org/info/timeline.html>
(6 April 2000). "Marcus Garvey: Life & Lessons," The Marcus
Garvey & UNIA Papers Project, UCLA, <http://www.isop.ucla.edu/mgpp/lifeintr.htm>
(6 April 2000). "Marcus Garvey Promotes Africa for the African,"
World African Network News, <http://www.wanonline.com/blackhistory/1999/blackhistory19996165.html>
(8 April 2000). "Marcus Garvey Words Come to Pass: A Black
Revolutionarys Teachings Line on Through Rastafarianism & Reggae
Music," The Dread Library, <http://debate. uvm.edu/dreadlibrary/jeans.html>
(6 April 2000). "Who was Marcus Garvey?" Thomas "Vialli"
Wallner: Who was Marcus Garvey, <http:/ /www.rockol.it/rockol/reggae/MarcusGa.htm>
(7 April 2000). Music Sources Bob Marley & the Wailers, "Exodus," Island Records Ltd., 1997. Bob Marley & the Wailers, "Songs of Freedom," Island Records
Ltd., 1999. Peter Tosh, "Equal Rights," JAD Records, 1977. Peter Tosh, "Honorary Citizen," JAD Records Inc., 1971 (disc
one); Pauline Morris, 1977 (disc two); Sony Music Est. Inc., 1997 (disc
three). Rastafari Elders, "Rastafari Elders," RAS Records Inc., 1990. Steel Pulse, "Steel Pulse Rastanthology," Wise Man Doctrine, 1996. Steel Pulse, "Vex," MCA, 1994. *Many lyrics from other artists looked at on niceup.com. Marcus Mosiah Garvey
"A Defiant Symbol of Black Nationalism"
Jill Heather Winnick