ROME IN THE WEST

Northern Italy and Environs

225 After First Punic War great Gallic threat; enormous invasion
Roman victory
224-220 Cisapline Gaul pacified, undone by Hannibal
Some Insubres (N of Po) & Boii (S of Po) (mercenaries) joined Hannibal
The rest revolted from Rome
Cenomani (N of Insubres) also wavered
Ligurians in NW (Italian Riviera) made terms with Rome before 218
Opened ports of Genoa and Luna to Rome; later closed them again

After Second Punic War

Rome wanted to protect existing military roads (Genoa to Milan / Luna to Piacenza / Florence to Bologna)
Wanted to build new road, Pisa to Luna to Genoa, continue west to Spain if possible

200 Hamilcar, Hannibal's diplomatic agent, stayed in N. Italy
Hamilcar persuaded Insubres to attack while Romans busy in Greece
Gauls razed Placentia (Piacenza): old Latin colony
Praetor L. Furius Purpureo saved Cremona, defeated Gauls

197 Roman success in Greece, renewed efforts in Gaul
Hamilcar organizing Gallic raid
M. Cornelius Cethegus and Cenomani defeated Insubres near Mantua
Skirmishes with Ligurians

196 M. Claudius Marcellus' final victory over Insubres near Lake Como
Insubres signed treaty (including promise that they would never have Roman citizenship)
Italians started settling near Milan — Area 'italianized' within a century
Boii S of Po attacked Marcellus on return, to little effect

194, 193, 192 Some fighting with Boii
193-191 Guerilla warfare vs. Ligurians (Q. Minucius Thermus)
191 Scipio Nasica invaded territory of Boii, big victory
Romans took Bologna (Bononia) with half or more of territory of Boii

Liguria

186 Ligurians defeated Marcius Philippus in mountains
181 L. Aemilius Paullus forced treaty on Ingauni
181/0 Coss. Cornelius & Baebius rounded up 40K Apuani, settled them in Samnium
181 Romans founded Aquileia to protect Veneti from mountain people
unusually large allotments
180 Romans founded Luca in Liguria
178 Istri annoyed, big Roman victory in 178/7

Pacification of NE

Liguria not all pacified: triumphs recorded for 175, 166, 158, 155
Perhaps for small campaigns vs. brigands
"Triumph-hunting in Liguria"
In Cicero's time "Ligurian triumph" a standing joke

181 Some tribes of Sardinia and Corsica helped Ligurians
177/6 Islands finally pacified by Tib. Sempronius Gracchus

Cisapline Gaul settled with Latin and Roman settlements
Road building
Not many men available after Punic War (good cheap land near Rome)
But within 20 years more men: viritane allotments back to 5-8 iugera
NB Selfish new policy with founding of Parma and Mutina in 183:
Inland agrarian land only for citizens

Spain

Subject to heavy tribute: precious metals, wheat
Levying of troops
    Spaniards soon sorry to have Roman instead of Carthaginian masters
205 Two governors: Nearer (E coast) and Further (S and SE)
    At first Romans sent privati with proconsular power
    Then sent praetors with same (197)
197 Revolt under native kings leads to general uprising
195 M. Porcius Cato with full consular army
Regained Nearer Spain
Bought off Celtiberians in Further Spain from alliance with Turdetani
    On return attacked unsuccessfully Segontia & Numantia
(war with Celtiberians until 133, fall of Numantia)
Fought tribes in Catalonia for better exploitation of mines
194-193 Lusitanians joined against Rome
190 L. Aemilius Paullus had initial defeat, later victory vs. Lusitanians
181 Romans penetrated highlands
181-179 Tib. Sempronius Gracchus ended Celtiberian War (until 153) by favorable treaty
Two colonies (Graccuris; Corduba [168? 151?]): attempt to Romanize
    Gracchan treaties often broken by Rome, but regarded as ideal
    Clemency better than force
Most Roman commanders did not agree
179-154 No war, plenty of extortion

171 Spaniards protested (1) vs. praefecti collecting tribute in communes
(2) vs. 5% tax on wheat (Roman officials determined price)
(3) vs. extortions: court of repetundae set up for first time
Court made permanent in 149, after actions of Lucullus and Galba

154-138 Lusitanian War (153–151, 143–133: Celtiberian War)

154 Lusitanians raided Roman territory for plunder, had success
    Celtiberians joined but gave over with favorable treaties (see below)
152 M. Atilius had some success
151 Praetor Ser. Sulpicius Galba defeated, helped by Lucullus in Nearer Spain
Galba offered land to Lusitanians
    Lusitanians disarmed, split up to be led to settlements
    Galba massacred almost all, but Viriathus escaped
Galba put on trial, attacked by Cato
    Galba got off, cos. 144
149 L. Calpurnius Piso, tr. pl., carries measure for quaestio de rebus repetundis
147 Lusitanians regrouped under Viriathus; had much success against Romans
145-144 Fabius Maximus (Aemilianus) with 2 legions made some progress
143-142 Roman failures encouraged Celtiberians
141 Cos. Fabius Maximus Servilianus got army surrounded
Viriathus spared consul and his army, accepted treaty (!) (men tired of war)
    Senate ratified treaty (!)
140 Servilius Caepio renewed war on his own initiative
138 Caepio bribed three friends of Viriathus to kill him
137 D. Junius Brutus had more success vs. Collaici (N of Lusitania)

But no province for a long time; in 49 a 'military annex'
Hard mountain country with thousands of tiny communities
Much worse than Samnium

Celtiberian War

(Good sources: Appian from Polybius; archaeological evidence of Roman camps)
153 Cos. Q. Fulvius Nobilior not successful (started January 1)
152 Cos. M. Marcellus successful, started peace negotiations
Negotiations fell through at Rome
    Marcellus disobeyed order to fight, made peace with Numantia for 3 million denarii (600T)
151 Cos. Lucullus (novus homo) had hard time with army recruiting
Scipio Aemilianus went as volunteer
    Lucullus found peace, attacked anyhow
    After a great massacre, he then helped Galba
149 Lucullus, on return to Rome, prosecuted by Cato
    Having gotten off, he built a temple to Felicitas

143-133 'Numantine War' (under lead of Lusitanians)

143-142 Metellus successful but didn't get to Numantia
141 Pompeius incompetent — with 30K men he could not take city defended by 8K with part of wall down
Numantia bought peace from him for 30T silver
139 Popillius Laenas rejected peace because Senate didn't ratify; silver not returned
137 Mancinus with 20K Romans surrounded by 4-8K Spaniards, and gave up
Surrender and treaty guaranteeed by Ti. Gracchus
Senate would not accept the arrangement (because of Scipio Aemilianus)
135 Assembly sent Scipio to Spain
134 Scipio built seven camps around Numantia
One under his brother Fabius Maximus
133 Besieged Numantines finally gave in to hunger
Scipio burnt town without waiting for Senate's orders

Roman rule in Spain characterized by greed and brutality
They continued to treat Iberians badly
Insurrection in 98, again under Augustus
Augustus finally enforced change of attitude:
Colonization and prosperity in Spain

Africa

Carthage after war: mercantile interests and ships
No dominions, no power
Numidia a threat to Carthage
Heavy indemnity to pay to Rome
Livy 33.45-49: Oligarchs overtaxed lower classes, who endured 3-4 yrs
ca. 196   Hannibal elected sufete ('praetor')
Reforms opposed by 104 judges; senate; bureaucrats
Conflict with 'quaestor': people must decide
Assembly under Hannibal reformed judges
Hannibal investigated state finances
Suppression of incompetence and corruption = no special tax
    After 191 Carthage offered to pay whole amount of indemnity to Rome
People happy; oligarchs/bureaucrats not
Oligarchs tell lies to Rome about Hannibal and Antiochus
    Scipio stifled this at first, but Roman paranoia strong:
195 Three legates sent to Carthage; Hannibal took off

Masinissa pursued two policies
1. Settle, civilize, unite country of nomads
2. Expand as far as Egypt
He took pieces of Carthaginian territory for 50 years
Carthage was not allowed to fight, only appeal to Rome

Third Punic War

153 Cato's commission to Carthage (aet. 81; b. 234): hatred crystallized
152 Scipio Nasica forced return of some land to Carthage
150 War of Carthage vs. Numidia
Carthage lost, but broke treaty of Zama by fighting
149 Rome mobilized 4 legions
Carthage was eager to appease: evasive answers from Rome
    Utica deserted to Rome
    Senate declared war
Army went to Africa (Scipio Aemilianus along as military tribune)
    Carthaginian envoys sent to submit, learned that war was declared
Senate granted 'freedom and enjoyment of laws'
   'all territory & possession of other property public and private'
But Carthage had to do the following:
(1) send 300 noble hostages to Rome
(2) obey any commands of consuls
And there was no mention of the city Carthage

Carthage sent hostages
On demand of consuls, Carthaginians surrendered arms and war machines
30 Carthaginian envoys sent to hear final will of Senate:
Leave city, settle at least 10 miles from sea = no trade or protection from Masinissa
Envoys stoned to death by populace of Carthage
Revulsion of feeling, preparation for defense
Masinissa not happy, because he wanted Carthage for himself

Carthage nearly impregnable: situation and walls
Had a smallish army in interior under Hasdrubal
No initial Roman success storming; blockade instituted
Carthaginians won some skirmishes over blockaders
Scipio averted three Roman disasters

148 Masinissa died, not liking Rome
But he liked Scipio, entrusted children to him
Scipio divided Numidia among three legitimate sons
Many smaller holdings given to other sons

Meanwhile Romans ineffective against Carthage, thus dissatisfaction at home
Cato voiced general opinion: elect Scipio
Lex Villia Annalis of 180 forbade this election; Scipio too young
    [Scipio 185/4–129; hadn't been praetor yet, standing for aedile]
Constitutional maneuvers to accomplish this
Special law: assembly chooses provinces
147 Scipio led attack: broke into suburbs but had to retreat
    Hasdrubal took army into city
    Carthaginians murdered Roman captives on wall to stiffen the citizens' backbones
Blockade brought closer and finally Carthage totally surrounded; all supplies cut off
Hasdrubal fired missiles at Roman envoys who approached to discuss peace

146 Libyan tribes submitted to Rome
Scipio attacked citadel
Laelius attacked wall at inner harbor, broke into marketplace
Six days & nights fighting house by house
Seventh day: citadel surrendered
50,000 inhabitants sold as slaves
Carthage razed
Utica and other deserters became free, the rest = province of Africa