THE GRACCHI
The Problem and the Principals
By the middle of second century some groups saw need for reform
140's some time: Scipio's friend Laelius brought land reform bill to
senate
Withdrew in face of senatorial opposition: thus
received the cognomen Sapiens
Later effort came from outside Scipionic group; Scipio was busy besieging
Numantia
137 Tib. Gracchus, on his way to Spain, observed slavery and
lack of free holders in Etruria
Reformers included:
App. Claudius Pulcher, princeps senatus (father-in-law of Tib.Sempronius
Gracchus)
P. Mucius Scaevola (brother-in-law of Ap.Claudius)
and his brother P. Licinius Crassus Mucianus (father-in-law of C.Gracchus)
All supported Tib. Sempronius Gracchus, Scipio's brother-in-law (also
cousin by adoption)
Tib. Gracchus as Tribune of the People
133 Tiberius elected tribune, proposed a land law about disposition
of public land:
Possessors to keep 500 iugera + 250 for each son
to max. 1000
Rest to be distributed to small holders at nominal
rent
Ager Campanus to be exempt
Presented bill to popular assembly
Hostile senators worked on tribune M. Octavius for long
time
Octavius finally relented, vetoed bill
Tiberius instituted iustitium until bill voted on,
whether accepted or rejected
Tiberius asked Octavius, his friend, to reconsider
Brought bill, senators removed voting urns
Tiberius' supporters began to resist
Two ex-consuls asked Tiberius to be moderate: law presented to
senate
Law blocked in senate (this may have happened
before bill was presented to the assembly)
More beseechings of Octavius: "one of us must go"
Octavius deposed and replaced
Bill passed, three-man commission set up
Senate denied the commission sufficient funds
to do their work
News of Pergamene inheritance
Also a rumor that the same messenger brought Tiberius
a crown and robe, as if about to be king of Rome
Tiberius persuaded people to vote Pergamene money for commissioners'
expenses, also funds for stocking farms
End of year: Tiberius wanted re-election for 132, to avoid liability
to prosecution
Possible legal difficulties, several assemblies
held
His last day beset by ill omens of every sort (naturally)
One senator (M. Fulvius Flaccus) told Tiberius that opponents couldn't
win over the consul (P. Mucius Scaevola)
Thus opponents had resolved on assassination
Tiberius' supporters armed themselves with fragments of barriers
Tiberius pointed to his head to indicate danger
This motion was interpreted by senatorial spies
as command that his followers should give him a crown
Pandemonium in senate, meeting at temple of Fides
Scaevola was asked to save state and destroy
the tyrant
Scaevola refused to engage in illegal action
P. Scipio Nasica (Pontifex Maximus) led armed senators out
Tiberius clubbed to death
All bodies of slain thrown in river
Three bad precedents (two Tiberius'):
1. Removal of Octavius = destruction of his veto's validity
Tribune became people's mouthpiece, not a magistrate
2. Re-election - demagoguery - mob-rule or dictatorship
3. Violence and assassination to end political quarrels
Aftermath
132 Execution or banishment of Tiberius' supporters
Under special court headed by P. Popillius Laenas
(cos. 132)
Scipio Nasica went on tour of Asia, although Pontifex Maximus
Nasica died in Asia
Tiberius replaced on three-man board by P. Licinius Crassus (cos.
131)
Crassus went to Asia, died 130
App. Claudius Pulcher also died about this time
Replacements on board: C. Papirius Carbo and M. Fulvius Flaccus
NB: Flacci political allies of Scipios in last generations
These two men served with Gaius Gracchus until 122
131/130 Carbo got secret ballot extended to legislative assemblies
Tried to introduce possibility of legal re-election
for tribunate
Scipio Aemilianus thwarted re-election bill
Scipio Aemilianus also defended allies' land in
disputes with commission
129 Scipio Aemilianus found dead when about to speak on Italian
question
125 M. Fulvius Flaccus consul: introduced bill to give allies
civitas if they wanted to have it
If not citizsenship, independence with appeal
from Roman magistrates
No popular or senatorial support for this measure
Gaius Gracchus as Tribune of the People
C. Gracchus had stayed quiet for several years, except for work on
the land commission
Prosecuted for every action, suspected for
everything, including oratorical ability
He was first to face the people, not the comitium (senate), when
addressing the people (!)
123-122 Gaius elected tribune, also re-elected for 122
At first, he and senate were restrained
Or perhaps the senate couldn't win over one
of other 9 tribunes in 123
C. Gracchus' legislative agenda:
All courts with power of capital punishment illegal,
unless established by the people = Popillius Laenas exiled
New colonies in S. Italy with middle class colonists
as well, to promote industries
Lex frumentaria: state to buy grain, build warehouses
in Ostia; grain sold at a fixed price, not a dole
Military: nobody under 17 to be drafted and state
to provide clothing
More roads in Italy: Gracchus took great care to
have them straight, level, and beautiful (very Roman)
Helped Equites:
Taxes for Asia auctioned
by censors at Rome: only corporations could afford to bid on the whole
thing
Jurors for quaestio de
rebus repetundis
Note on powers of Equites:
Not they, only magistrates (senatorial class), could
be prosecuted for extortion
Also exempt from law vs. bribing jurors because
when law was passed, only senators were jurors
122 Senatorial tribune M. Livius Drusus alleged that Gaius liked
new fashions and rarities!
Drusus and senate pushed bills to rival Gaius' agenda:
12 colonies for really poor
people (never established)
No rent on allotments of
133 and later
No Latin to be whipped,
not even in army
Gracchus' counter proposals:
Colony of Junonia in Africa
= lex Rubria
Latins receive full citizenship;
other Italian allies to get Latin status
Supported by M. Fulvius Flaccus (cos. of 125)
Deserted by C. Fannius (whom he had helped become
cos. for 122)
Fannius appealed to selfishness/jealousy of urban mob
Gracchus not re-elected for 121, victim of rumors (he was in Africa)
People were happy with their own gains and did not
like sympathy for allies
121 Tribune Minucius Rufus moved to repeal lex Rubria
Gracchus and his bodyguard (supporters) protested
A servant of cos. L. Opimius insulted Gracchus and
friends, was attacked and killed
Gracchus was not pleased, but Opimius was: he didn't
like Gracchus and the senate wanted excuse for action
If Gracchus were incited
to violence they could retaliate
First SCV
Opimius was only too happy to comply: called senators and equites to arms
Gracchus, Flaccus, et al. occupied Aventine, tried negotiation
Senate would only pardon those who deserted them
Gracchus prayed in temple of Diana that as punishment
for ingratitude and treachery, Roman people would always remain in slavery
Gracchans defeated and killed
Opimius arrested 3000 more people, executed them without trial
Later victims included youngest son of Flaccus,
arrested before the fight when he was sent with offers of negotiation
Opimius at orders of senate restored Temple of Concord
Results
Some temporary economic benefits
Italians embittered
Equites more self-conscious of their status as a group and of their
power
People got a taste of their power over the senate
Senate meanwhile regained control
120 L. Opimius prosecuted but acquitted
P. Popillius Laenas recalled
Work of Gracchi undisturbed, in fact:
111 All ager publicus became property of possessors = no rent
Good measure, except there was no more land left
in Italy for distribution
Metelli et al. most prominent, pro-Equites
Also M. Aemilius Scaurus (princeps senatus 115,
censor 109)
But Senate under increasing pressure from people, equites
Quaestiones first received split jury, then returned to equites
Election to priestly colleges
Sign of times: Cn. Pompeius Strabo shocked everyone (104)
Helped to prosecute governor of Sardinia,
under whom he'd been quaestor
Saturninus
104 L. Appuleius Saturninus turned popularis when senate replaced
him with M. Aemilius Scaurus as quaestor Ostiensis (rise in grain prices)
Saturninus tribune in 103 and 100: a real "modern"
103 Saturninus prosecuted various optimates
Saturninus established treason court (charge of diminishing maiestas
of populus Romanus) with equestrian jurors
Definition of maiestas loose, and politically
useful
Saturninus supported Marius' election for 102
Sponsored law giving 100 iugera each for veterans,
in Africa
102 Q. Caecilius Metellus Numidicus censor
Wanted to dump Saturninus and his ally C. Servilius Glaucia from senate
Riot
Reconciliation
101 Saturninus was prosecuted for insulting envoys of K. Mithridates
of Pontus
He was acquitted because he got the mob to break
up proceedings
100 Saturninus tribune, having had a competitor murdered
Law for Marius' veterans: land in Transalpine
Gaul, colonies in Sicily, Achaea, Macedonia, etc.
Set up land commission
Some colonies to be Latin also = reward allies
Sanction in law, very offensive:
Senators had to swear to
uphold it or go into exile
Senators mostly swore; Metellus
preferred exile
- measure passed under pressure of Marius' veterans in Forum
Saturninus again re-elected tribune for 99
C. Memmius (tribune 111) running for consul vs. Glaucia, killed in
riot
Marius not pleased: force is one thing, murder another
Senate passed SCV
Saturninus et al. seized the Capitol, Marius shut off water, they surrendered
Marius locked them in senate house for protective custody
Crowd broke through roof, killed them with
roof tiles
Saturninus' legislation declared invalid because per vim
98 Metellus recalled
Marius went to east for a while
Ostensibly for religious
purposes, to fulfill vow to Cybele
Really because he was helpless
at domestic politics
Politics at end of second century:
Gracchi
Need for social/economic reforms in Italy to counteract rising urban population,
declining free agrarian population
Backbone of Republican army had been Roman and Italian
peasants
Distribution of land a palliative, but ineffective
if tied to long military service overseas
Ruination of some farmers
was inevitable
Saturninus
Represented a new breed of politician
Policies aimed against leading men, whether wise or not
Use of mob violence to intimidate voters (elections/legislative assembly)
Use of murder to eliminate political rivals
- Although senate started it-
e.g. murder of C. Memmius in 100 (or 99):
Memmius was also a "radical," witness activities
in 111
He was eliminated not because
politics were different but because he was rival of another, supposedly
with the same political sympathies
Optimates still controlled much by weight of authority, numbers
of clients, and solidarity - when they could achieve it
Also often used one tribune against another
But Tiberius Gracchus showed
how to get around this