CICERO

Oratory

Oratory or law almost as good as birth or military service for advancement
Oratory flourished when public argument amounted to something
Romans increasingly studied rhetoric in Greece or at Rome
Cicero's Brutusdescribes the development of the art, and both Greek and Roman predecessors
  A few fragments of earlier orators survive, some of them invective

Cicero himself gained prominence through legal practice and oratory
  Many of his speeches are extant
  Not all are to modern taste, but they are always beautiful to hear
  He modified style and content to suit each occasion
    Often he quoted comedy or indulged a low sense of humor, employed a kind of 'street Latin' to address opposition
  Acting was part of it: one had to cry, become agitated or outraged, sometimes play the role of another
Cicero developed periodic sentences and rhythmical clausulae

He also wrote works on theory and practice of oratory
He refined the language to make it a more effective literary tool

Political theory: De Republica

Ideal constitution and statesmen belonged to the previous century
  His ideal people were Scipio Aemilianus et similes
  His ideal form of government was a balanced constitution guided by enlightened nobility
Letters: published after his death without his revision
  Outstanding source for historians, and they make Cicero's life an open book
  Letters give us a very good idea of the difference between political theory and political practice

Philosophy

Stoicism and Epicureanism were most important for upper classes
  Posidonius strengthened appeal of Stoic ideas to Romans
    He identified political and ethical activities sanctioned by religious duty
Duty is the operative word: M. Brutus and Cato
Most Epicureans withdrew from public life, but Cassius was an Epicurean, as was Caesar
Cicero wrote many works on philosophy, especially in his last years when he withdrew from public life
  Eclectic thinking: influenced most by Stoics, New Academy
  He was proud of his greatest literary accomplishment:
    single-handed creation of a language which could be used to express philosophical ideas
Cicero wrote, inter alia, Tusculan Disputations, De Senectute, De Amicitia, De Natura Deorum
And especially, De Officiis

Cicero in Public Life

63  L. Sergius Catilina ran for consul, was defeated for third time
  His program: cancellation of debts
Catilina turned to a conspiracy, details of which were betrayed to the consul Cicero
Cicero needed evidence, finally got it
5 December: the debate in the Senate
     Cicero bribed his colleague Antonius Hybrida with a good province
     Conspirators executed, Cicero announced to crowds vixerunt
     Execution voted by Senate at insistence of M. Porcius Cato, Julius Caesar arguing contra

62  Cicero conceived of concordia ordinum
  But as a novus homo without military experience, he did not have the enormous clientela that, e.g., Pompey had
  He turned to Pompey, who wanted to save Rome from Catilina himself, thus was not pleased with Cicero
  NB: Cato and his crowd had worked vs. Pompey's recall too
At end of year Pompey returned and to everyone's surprise disbanded his army and became a private citizen
  He divorced his wife Mucia (annoyed Metelli) but was turned down by Cato when he asked about an alliance
61  The juicy scandal of the rites of Bona Dea
  P. Clodius Pulcher and Pompeia (daughter of Q. Pompeius Rufus cos. 88)
  Caesar, praetor urbanus, divorced his wife (Sulla's granddaughter)
  Clodius finally brought to trial
  Cicero destroyed his alibi but Clodius got off anyhow
    Clodius became more popular, and Cicero's enemy
60  Pompey asked Senate to ratify Asian settlement, give land to veterans
  Optimates quibbled
  Tribune Flavius brought land bill for Pompey, even arrested a consul
  But Catonists won and Pompey was not happy
Caesar just then back from Spain (governor of Further Spain) where he
  Tried to improve economic conditions
  Had campaigned succesfully in the west
Caesar wanted a triumph, and thus to stand for consul in absentia
  Senate refused, Caesar gave up his triumph to run for consul
[Cicero complained that Cato spoke as if he were in the Republic of Plato, not in the sewer of Romulus]

The "First Triumvirate"

Crassus, Pompey, Caesar formed an amicitia: Three powerful men fighting (each other and) the state for dignitas
[Asinius Pollio starts the civil war in 60; Tacitus goes back to Marius and Sulla]
Meanwhile the deal was still a secret, although soon figured out
  Pompey married Julia
Senate, to thwart Caesar, made his province for 58 a forestry commission
Senate used bribery (which Cato said was legitimate if done in the best interest of the state) to elect
  M. Calpurnius Bibulus as Caesar's colleague in 59

The consulship of Julius and Caesar?

59  Caesar introduced land bill to Senate
  Cato convinced them to say no
  Caesar disgusted, took bill to people
    Ignored colleague, brought in Pompey's veterans
Tribune P. Vatinius had measures passed:
  Confirming Pompey's eastern settlement
  Adjusting publicani  debt (on bad bid for Asia) to please Crassus
  Giving Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum to Caesar for five years
    Senate added Transalpine Gaul when its governor died
"Triumvirs" took big bribe from Ptolemy XI Auletes for recognition
Lex Iulia de repetundis: defined powers of provincial governors
  Limiting gifts and requisitions; account keeping
Publication of senatorial resolutions and important news
Cicero, although approached (for oratory and respectability), declined to join Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus
  He figured political freedom dead whether or not he did join them
As the year progressed, the real situation became apparent
  Varro wrote a pamphlet, The Three-Headed Monster
  Theater demonstrations
Opposition by "martyrdom" - and they were unified!
Bibulus locked himself up in his house and issued edicts; Cato was intransigent
  This forced the use of force - thus made his complaints plausible
For the future, Caesar looked for a new tribune:
  P. Clodius Pulcher went over to the plebs by adoption, was elected tribune for 58
    His job was to safeguard the interests of the three and to watch Pompey while Caesar was in Gaul
    He also looked out for himself

58  Clodius as tribune proposed and had passed these bills:
1. Both censors must agree, to expel a senator (+ judicial inquiry)
2. No more obnuntiating (except tribunes)
3. Free grain (NB)
4. Collegia (guilds, associations) legal again = political clubs and gangs

Next, Clodius wanted to get rid of Cicero and Cato
Caesar offered Cicero a post in Gaul or abroad, but he refused
Clodius' bill vs. putting citizens to death without trial
  Cicero took off; bill passed
  Cicero was officially exiled, property confiscated
    He had to stay 400 miles from Rome: went to Macedonia
  Cato was sent to annex Cyprus (pretext because king had helped pirates)
    Ptolemy (of Cyprus) killed himself; island became part of Cilicia
Caesar went to Gaul
Clodius picked on Pompey: under orders?
Pompey for some time stayed home for protection from verbal - and possibly physical - abuse
  Pompey now supported Cicero; so did Italian towns

57  August: Comitia Centuriata recalled Cicero
  His triumphant procession across Italy
Cicero supported Pompey for commission to relieve grain shortage
Pompey got proconsular imperium for five years
  Others proposed wider powers (maius imperium + army)

56  Pompey more and more annoyed at and suspicious of Crassus, esp. when attacked by Clodius' gang, e.g. at a contio
Pompey alleged in Senate that his life was in danger from Crassus
Pompey organized a rival gang under T. Annius Milo
The three drifted apart
But L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, running for cos. of 55, planned to recall Caesar from Gaul
  Lost his "own" consulship for his troubles:
 Caesar still at Ravenna, joined by Crassus, and invited Pompey

Conference at Luca

120 senators paid court; not Cicero
Caesar gets another five years
Pompey and Crassus were to be elected consuls for 55, then get Spain and Syria respectively
  Some disturbances (and head-banging) at elections, but they were elected
Tribune C. Trebonius proposed their measures, Cato et al. objecting
Pompey got right to govern Spain through legates and stay near Rome

54  Julia died

53  Crassus killed at Carrhae after attacking Parthians
Milo killed Clodius in a fight
Due to uproar, no elections held yet
Senate passed SCV
Bibulus, Cato, rest of senate make Pompey sole consul for 52
Milo went on trial for murder, lost, went into exile at Massilia