Annotated Bibliographies, Soc 243 Fall 2003
Valerie Winot
Soc 243
11/4/03
Annotated Bibliography
Bartwoski, John P., Xiaohe Xu, Martin L. Levin,
and
Heather Hanna. “Seasonality of Adolescent Suicides and Vehicular
Fatalities.” Social Life and Death. (Unpublished Manuscript). This is a
study on the two leading causes of death among teens. Temporal and
gender
statistics were used to identify whether or not there are seasonal or
gender
differences in rates of suicide and vehicular fatalities. Bartowski, et
al.
also discuss the magnitude of adolescent suicide and vehicular
fatalities in
society as well as suggestions about further research in this area that
may lead
to solutions or policies leading to a reduction in accidental deaths
among
teens.
Deery, Hamish. “Hazard and Risk Perception Among
Young Novice Drivers.” Journal of Safety Research 30.4 (1994): 225-235.
This is a research study on the effects of risk perception and lack of
high
order skills in young novice drivers as a major contributing factor in
the
overrepresentation of young drivers in road accidents. Too often age is
the
only factor examined and many fail to consider the level of
inexperience of the
driver and the lack of preparation for hazardous conditions. Deery
argues that
people must look at the whole picture when considering analysis of
young
drivers.
Deery does mention that other factors such as
attitude,
motivation and social influence may also provoke young drivers, males
in
particular, to accept or even seek risk in hazardous situations, though
his main
concern is risk perception in general.
Hunt, Arnold. “Moral Panic and Moral Language in
the
Media.” British Journal of Sociology 48.4 (1997): 629-649. Hunt traces
the term “moral panic” through its history and talks about how
it’s meaning has changed over time. He also talks about the increased
usage of the term since the 1980s. One of Hunt’s main concerns is the
power of the press to initiate moral panics, in addition to some other
models,
suggesting how moral panics may be generated to the media, which then
simply
assists in perpetuating them. Hunt argues that the term moral panic has
become
almost commonplace in today’s society, both in scholarly literature and
the media, but despite changes in definition and frequency of the term,
the idea
of moral panic is here to stay.
Li, Guohua, Cyrus Shahpar, Jurek George Graboski,
and
Susan P. Baker. “Secular Trends of Motor Vehicle Mortality in the
United
States 1910-1994.” Accident and Analysis and Prevention 33 (2001):
423-432. Li, et al. complied annual population and mortality data from
1910 to
1994 in the United States to study the secular trends of motor vehicle
fatalities, using age, period and cohort (birth period) as factors in
their
analyses. Their results showed that at certain points in history death
rates
peaked, yet in general death rates have decreased, especially among the
elderly.
Their main findings were an increase in
fatalities among
youth. They found that while death rates have been declining in all
other
categories, they are on the rise for young drivers. Their hypothesis
for this
statistic is that licensure rates and average miles traveled for young
adults
have also been on the rise at a disproportionate level.
Mastonardi, Maria. “Adolescence and Media.”
Journal of Language and Social Psychology 22 (2003): 83-93. Mastonardi
examines
major trends of the media effects tradition arguing that more studies
are
required to explore the relationship between youth and the mass media.
She
talks about the view within media sources of teenagers as
“troubled,” describing the period of adolescence as a time of
“storm and stress”. In this article, Mastonardi asks that we be
wary of the relentless focus on youth and their so called risky
behaviors in the
media, and that we also bear in mind that teenagers are not the only
beings
capable of risky behavior and that there may also be serious
consequences of
adult risky behaviors, such as an influence on young people. Mastonardi
chose
to augment her study by focusing on media consumption, media violence,
sexuality, and media and young women, what she sees as the four key
elements of
effects research concerning adolescents.
McRobbie, Angela and Sarah L. Thornton.
“Rethinking
‘moral panic’ for multi-mediated social worlds.” British
Journal of Sociology 46.4 (1995): 559-574. McRobbie and Thornton also
go to
great lengths to discuss the origin and transformations of the term
“moral
panic” and its use in society and the media. The authors claim that
moral
panics have become a sort of familiar form of response to the way in
which daily
events are broadcast to attract attention. McRobbie and Thornton direct
their
study toward the focus on youth in particular in the topic of moral
panics in
society and the consequences that has on the way society sees
adolescents in
addition to the way they see themselves.
There also seems to be an increase in tabloid
style
headlines and pictures accompanying articles in the media, contributing
to their
effect as a moral panic and a way to grab attention.
Suchman, Edward A. “Accidents and Social
Deviance.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 11.1 (1970): 4-15. The
purpose of this article is to examine the influence of factors such as
attitudes
and self- image coupled with a variety of measures of deviant behavior
on
accidental injuries for High School and College students. Suchman
developed a
series of questions to examine the likelihood of accident causing
behavior among
youth. He found that when adolescents perceive themselves as deviants
there was
a profound impact on their likelihood of suffering accidental injuries.
He
suggested that despite driver training courses, improved vehicle and
road design
and enhanced safety measures, it may be that young people need to
redefine their
self image to help them establish norms of behavior. He leaves it up to
us to
help create a world in which young people can redefine themselves.
“The Council of Economic Advisors on Risk and
Responsibility.” Population and Development Review 13.1 (19870:
171-179. The focus of this article is on the sometimes controversial
roles of the
government in the management of risk. There is a discussion about the
increase
in the frequency of the automobile travel and the overall decline of
fatalities
from 1940 to 1985. Drunk driving is listed as the leading cause of
death among
teens and alcohol is noted as a main contributor to accidents and
injuries
concerning over 50% of fatal automobile accidents.
Ungar, Sheldon. “Moral Panic versus the Risk
Society: the Implications of the Changing Sites of Social Anxiety.”
British Journal of Sociology 52.2 (2001): 271-291. Ungar also mentions
the
change in the term moral panic and the resounding focus on youth
related topics.
He accuses the use of moral panic to be a way to instill fear on
society from
other more serious and complex issues. Ungar also delves into the
changing and
broader focus of moral panics, leading to the creation of what he calls
a risk
society. He examines use of the term in literature, but also the use of
term by
people in society, further exemplifying it’s sort of commonplace
nature.
US Bureau of the Census. “Statistical Abstract of
the United States: 1992.” Washington D.C. 1992
US Census Bureau. “Statistical Abstract of the
United States: 2002.” Washington D.C. 2001
Welch, Michael, Eric A. Price, Nana Yankey.
“Moral
Panic over Youth Violence: Wilding and the Manufacture of Menace in the
Media.” Youth and Society 34.1 (2002): 3-30. The authors in this
article
focus on the development of a moral panic in relation to social
wilding, seen as
a derivative of the term. They lay out a step-by-step definition of the
components necessary of a moral panic; including concern, consensus,
hostility,
disproportionality, and volatility. Welch, et al. also highlight a
focus on
youth considered deviants as a recurring topic related to moral panics.
There
is also a notion of the strategies for political advancement and new
legislation
brought about from heightened concern in society. Their focus is mainly
on the
use of the term “moral panic” in the media.
Kelly Brown
Sociology 243: Mass Media
Annotated Bibliography
November 5, 2003
Annotated Bibliography
Hegemony
Donaldson, M. “What is Hegemonic Masculinity?”
Theory and Society (1993): 643-657.
Heterosexuality
Mennesson, Christine; Clément,
Jean-Paul.
“Homosociability and Homosexuality: The Case of Soccer Played by
Women.” International Review For The Sociology Of Sport (2003):
311-330.
The above journal article analyzes the
biographical and
contextual elements favoring the involvement of female athletes playing
high-level team sports in homosexual practices, a recurring issue in
the
sporting arena. The study in the article takes place in the world of
soccer and
rugby, in France where a male-oriented, homophobic sociability that is
unfavorable to feminization of the sport exists. Based on in-depth
interviews
and on a long observation period, this study contributes to the current
scientific debate regarding the construction of identity, specifically
gender
identity. The article focuses in particular on Becker and Goffman's
work on the
process of normative construction (Mennesson and Clément
2003).
Wright, Jan; Clarke, Gill. “Sport, the Media and
the
Construction of Compulsory Heterosexuality: A Case Study of Women's
Rugby
Union.” International Review for the Sociology of Sport (1999):
227-243.
The above journal article argues that media
representations of sport are particularly powerful in naturalizing and
normalizing hegemonic meanings about the body and social relations. The
article
states that while there is a considerable amount of research analyzing
how
gender differences are constructed in the media’s coverage of sport,
the
hegemony of heterosexuality is seldom questioned. Here, this research
is
extended by exploring, through content analysis, how print media
representations
of sport contribute to the denial of lesbian sexuality and social
relations in
the case of female rugby union players. Its focus is on how choices in
language
and visual representations work to engage in a process of normalization
whereby
females playing the man's game of rugby are constituted in terms of
hegemonic
versions of heterosexual femininity (Wright and Gill 1999).
Masculinity
Bryson, Lois. “Sport and the Maintenance of
Masculine Hegemony.” Women's Studies International Forum (1987):
349-360.
The above journal article argues that the sport
construct
supports masculine hegemony through two basic dimensions: one that
links
maleness with highly valued and visible skills and the positively
sanctioned use
of aggression, and another that inferiorizes women and their
activities. The
article goes on to explain that this monopolization is completed by a
series of
concrete processes that effectively marginalize women from sport
participation
through definition, direct control, ignoring, and trivialization. The
article
examines these processes in depth, and illustrates them with examples
from the
Australian sporting scene (Bryson 1987).
Bryson, Lois. “Sport and the Oppression of
Women.” The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Sociology (1983):
413-426.
The above journal article argues that, in
general, sport
contributes to male dominance by supporting an atmosphere of male
superiority in
publicly acclaimed skills. The article states that this leads to a male
monopoly of aggression and violence. The article goes on to conclude
that as a
result of this, women and their skills are viewed as inferior, since
they are
isolated from this basis of social power- physical force (Bryson 1983).
Daddario, Gina. “Chilly Scenes of the 1992 Winter
Games: The Mass Media and the Marginalization of Female Athletes.”
Sociology of Sport Journal (1994): 275-288.
The above journal article examines the U.S. media
coverage
of female athletes during the 1992 winter Olympic Games by analyzing
the
broadcasting of the game’s events over a two week period. The article
states that the results of this study demonstrates that, although
females are
depicted in physically challenging events that do challenge
stereotypical
notions of femininity, the sport coverage reinforced masculine sports
hegemony
through strategies of marginalization. The article states that these
strategies
included the application of condescending descriptors, the use of
compensatory
language, the construction of female athletes according to an
adolescent ideal,
and the presentation of female athletes as driven by cooperation rather
than
competition (Daddario 1994).
Eitzen, D Stanley; Zinn, Maxine Baca. “The
De-Athleticization of Women: The Naming and Gender Marking of
Collegiate Sport
Teams.” Sociology of Sport Journal (1989): 362-370.
The above article discusses U.S. colleges and
universities
use of nicknames, colors, logos, and mascots as identifying and
unifying
symbols, especially concerning their athletic teams. This article
argues that
the patterns of the use of these identifying and unifying symbols in
more than
half of these institutions employ names, mascots, and logos that demean
and
derogate women's teams. The article also states that there are no
significant
differences in naming patterns by type of school, but that region is
significant
because southern schools are more likely to use sexist names than
schools
elsewhere. The article argues that these sexist naming practices
contribute to
the maintenance of male dominance within college athletics by defining
women
athletes and women's athletic programs as second-class and trivial
(Eitzen and
Zinn 1989).
Jansen, Sue Curry; Sabo, Don. “The Sport/War
Metaphor: Hegemonic Masculinity, the Persian Gulf War, and the New
World
Order.” Sociology of Sport Journal (1994): 1-17.
The above journal article analyzes the language
used
during the coverage of the Persian Gulf War in electronic and print
news media. The article also states that discourse in the sport
industry and sport media is
employed to demonstrate how sport/war metaphors are crucial rhetorical
resources
for mobilizing the patriarchal values that construct, mediate, and
maintain
hegemonic forms of masculinity. It is argued in this article that sport
/war
metaphors reflect and reinforce the multiple systems of domination that
rationalize war and strengthen the hegemony of white Western male
elites (Jansen
and Sabo 1994).
Jones, Ray; Murrell, Audrey J; Jackson, Jennifer.
“Pretty versus Powerful in the Sports Pages: Print Media Coverage of
U.S.
Women's Olympic Gold Medal Winning Teams.” Journal of Sport and Social
Issues (1999): 183-192.
The above article examines how descriptions of
the
performance of female athletes are likely to reflect dominant beliefs
about
gender in society. The article looks to 769 passages of print media
that
focused on the U.S. women’s basketball, gymnastic, soccer, and softball
teams from the 1996 Olympics and the U.S. women's hockey team from the
1998
Olympics for content analysis. The article explains that two dimensions
were
examined for each passage: task relevance and the use of gender
stereotypes. The article included that consistent with expectations,
female athletes in male
sport were described by the print media using frequent male-to-female
comparisons and comments that had little to do with sports or the
athlete's
performance. The article also suggests that the print media’s coverage
of
female athletes in female sport focused on performance while
reinforcing female
stereotypes. The article concludes that the implications of the images
of
female athletes portrayed by the print media supports masculine
hegemony (Jones,
et al. 1999).
Kuo, Liangwen. “Media Reproduction of Masculinity
in
Sports-A Case Study of New Zealand's Yacht Race Victory in the
America's
Cup.” National Taiwan University Journal of Sociology (1998):
323-374.
The above journal article examines the role of
the media
in the reproduction of masculinity in New Zealand's yacht race victory
in the
1995 America's Cup in the context of several theses: sport as social
institution, multiple masculinities, hegemonic masculinities,
masculinity as a
sign system, and consumer culture. Discussion in this article shows
that the
hegemonic masculinity of white upper and middle-class males is not just
manifested in sport, but is actually reproduced by sport. It argues
that the
mechanism that effects this reproduction starts with the involvement of
corporate interests and their alliance with the dominant media. The
article
argues that this controls and manipulates the development of sport
events. It
agues that the media not only tells New Zealanders what they want and
how to
participate, but also works to reproduce men's hegemonic masculinity
through the
construction of national identity (Kuo 1998).
Lenskj, Helen Jefferson. “'Inside Sport' or 'On
the
Margins'? Australian Women and the Sport Media.” International Review
for
the Sociology of Sport (1998): 19-32.
The above journal article analyzes the
contradictory
constructions of gender relations in the popular Australian sport
magazine,
Inside Sport. The investigation shows that, while sexual exploitation
of women
is still present, particularly in photographs, more complex
marginalizing
practices are also evident. Further, the article argues that the
combination of
critical text and exploitative graphics is organized to convey a sense
of
balanced coverage and representation of both sexes. It argues that the
magazine's formula of men's sports/women's bodies reflects, constructs,
and
perpetuates beliefs about hegemonic masculinity and emphasized
femininity in
Australian society (Lenskj 1998).
Maas, Kay W; Hasbrook, Cynthia A. “Media
Promotion
of the Paradigm Citizen/Golfer: An Analysis of Golf Magazines'
Representations
of Disability, Gender, and Age.” Sociology of Sport Journal (2001):
21-36.
The above journal article describes the sport of
golf as
elitist, racist, and sexist. It argues that recently it has become
clear that
golf is also able-bodiest. The article tells the story of Casey Martin-
a
young, upper class, white, male golfer with a physical disability, who
was
featured in the media for challenging the Professional Golf Association
(PGA)
rules prohibiting the use of a golf cart during tournament play. This
article
draws on Connell's construct of hegemonic masculinity and Wendell's
notion of
the paradigm citizen. The article examines if and how hegemonic
masculinity and
the paradigm citizen are reinforced, maintained, and challenged within
four
issues of major golf magazines (including a special golfing issue of
Sports
Illustrated published around the time of the trial). The articles
findings
include that golfers with disabilities are absent from advertisements
and
photographs and are given minimal attention in articles. The data
included in
this article suggests that golf magazines continue to maintain and
reinforce
hegemonic masculinity and the paradigm citizen (Maas and Hasbrook
2001).
McKay, Jim; Rowe, David. “Ideology, the Media,
and
Australian Sport.” Sociology of Sport Journal (1987): 258-273.
The above journal article focuses on the
ideological
relationships between the media and Australian sport as examined from a
critical
perspective. The article first outlines the contributions of political
economy,
structuralism, and cultural studies to the critical model. It then
argues that
the Australian media have two main ideological effects: they legitimate
masculine hegemony, capitalist rationality, consensus, and militaristic
nationalism and they marginalize, trivialize, and fragment alternative
ideologies of sport. This article also argues that the politicizing of
media
representations of sport is an important part of the counter-hegemonic
struggle
in patriarchal, capitalist societies (McKay and Rowe 1987).
Pedersen, Paul Mark. “Examining Equity in
Newspaper
Photographs: A Content Analysis of the Print Media Photographic
Coverage of
Interscholastic Athletics.” International Review for the Sociology of
Sport (2002): 303-318.
The above journal article argues that because of
hegemonic
masculinity females have encountered countless obstacles in their quest
to
participate in and receive the benefits from sport. The article goes on
to ague
that the mass media have aided in the establishment of these barriers
with their
biased coverage of sports. The article states that while the existence
of
under-representative and stereotyped coverage of females has been
documented
across various types of media, there has not been any determination of
equitable
coverage at the interscholastic level. This content analysis, through
its
investigation of the newspaper photographic coverage given to high
school
athletics, seeks to fill this void. The study found that female
athletics were
significantly under-represented in number of photographs and total
photographic
column inches. The study also concluded that male athletics, not only
received
more photographic coverage but their photographs were also better
positioned and
more likely to be in color. The study found that collectively, the
newspapers
upheld hegemonic masculinity through their under-representation and
marginalization of high school female athletics (Pedersen 2002).
Carrie Dailey
11/5/03
Soc. 243
Annotated Bibliography
1. Armstrong, G. M. & Brucks, M. (1988).
Dealing With
Children’s Advertising: Public Policy Issues and Alternatives. Journal
of
Public Policy and Marketing, 7, 98-113.
The authors look into past regulations involving
advertising to children on television. In 1974 the FTC made a policy
against
overcommercialization. A decade later this was lifted in the defense
that market
forces would protect children. Several parties, such as the ACT then
pressured
the FTC to reopen this issue along with banning toy-based programs.
However,
everyone agreed with the current research that children are a special
advertising audience with vulnerabilities, and care must be taken in
designating
and presenting television advertising to children, but they disagree on
the
solutions to this. The solution that the authors suggest to the
problems of
children’s advertising is in the direction that something must be done
to
filter out children’s exposure to it. They suggest that everyone should
work together including the all consumers (parents, children, public
interest
groups), and government regulators (FTC, FCC).
2. Atkin, C. K., “Effects of Television
Advertising
on Children,” Children and the Faces of Television: Teaching, Violence,
Selling, Palmer, E. L. & Dorr, A. New York: Academic Press, Inc.,
1981,
287-305.
Atkin explores how advertisements negatively
impact
families and leave children unhappy. This was found to be due to, and
is
consistent with other scholarly research, parents not complying with
one-half
the requests children make for certain advertised products, one-third
to
one-half of the children who were denied products become unhappy,
disappointed,
or angry, and advertising interruptions of television programs result
in
irritation of the viewers. This information was found to be more likely
amongst
children who watched considerably more advertising, but was however not
significant with age differences. This finding was not in agreement
amongst all
other studies conducted, there was mixed agreement amongst researchers
for this.
Atkin also found that aggressive and hostile responses were the result
when
products were exaggerated and children were not satisfied in their use,
aggressive acts were portrayed in the advertisements, and fast-paced
and
exciting commercials emotionally aroused viewers.
3. Barcus, F. E., “The Nature of Television
Advertising to Children,” Children and the Faces of Television:
Teaching,
Violence, Selling, Palmer, E. L. & Dorr, A. New York: Academic
Press, Inc.,
1981, 273-285.
In This study Barcus looked into the content
characteristics of Children’s advertisements, which include types of
products advertised, the manner in which they are presented,
attention-getting
devices, and the types of verbal disclosures. These were then
determined if they
were in the best interests of children. Barcus found that children
develop brand
preferences due to advertisements and then pressure parents to buy
them. Barcus
also found that through advertisements and children developing a
preference for
brand name products, their world gets illustrated based on the
advertisements.
4. Brand, J. E. & Greenberg, B. S. (1994).
Commercials
in the Classroom: The Impact of ChannelOne Advertising. Journal of
Advertising
Research, 34, 18-27.
The authors are in agreement that advertising
produces
excessive desires in preadolescents and adolescents, but sought out to
prove
this by studying the effects of Channel One advertising in school on
its young
viewers. The authors studied three categories that have been previously
proven
to be effected by advertising presented to youth in the home:
affective,
behavioral, and cognitive. The authors found that all three were
impacted,
especially for affective. Viewers expressed stronger
consumption-oriented values
than non-viewers. For behavioral, the purchasing habits of the children
for
effected in that they purchased more. Lastly for cognition, advertising
on
Channel One showed to produce stronger desires for the products.
5. Cullingford, Cedric (1984). Children and
Television.
New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Cullingford examines what children expect from
television, what children see in television, what children learn from
television, and what children take from television. He notes that the
effects of
television on children lie in the formation of general attitudes and
styles of
interpretation that are similar to those of adults such as, they have a
prominent desire for entertainment that fulfills familiar norms.
Therefore
children approach television in a fairly sophisticated adult way and do
not
believe everything they see. Cullingford notes that what makes an
advertisement
a child’s favorite is not the product being advertised but the style of
the presentation. Children also relate and respond more to
advertisements that
involve an identifiable cartoon character. Their liking for the
advertisements
has an ambiguous relationship to their knowledge of what is being
advertised.
Cullingford also found which is consistent with other studies that
children’s knowledge of brand names is extensive. Children are also
shown
that even though they know they are being persuaded toward they
advertised
product they succumb to it anyway, which is consistent with some
previous
research but not all. Lastly Cullingford found that a child is more
responsive
to advertisements that have been repeated, which is consistent with
other
findings.
6. Doubleday, C. & Droege, K., “Cognitive
Developmental Influences on children’s Understanding of Television,”
Children & Television: Images in a Cultural Sociocultural World,
Berry, G.
L. & Asamen, J. K., Newbury Park, California: SAGE Publications,
Inc., 1993,
23-35.
Doubleday and Droege focus their study on the
cognitive
processes and understandings that children experience at the
developmental
stages of preschoolers, young children, and older children. The authors
are in
agreement with what children are learning from television creates
implications
of the already learned information for a particular developmental
stage.
Preschoolers of the ages of 4 or 5 can distinguish between television
and
commercials, but are more heavily affected by various production
factors, have
higher trust in commercials, and lower recall and understanding of
commercial
messages than older children. By the time children reach the ages of 5
to 7 they
still respond to commercials like preschoolers, but are beginning to be
able to
understand the persuasive intent in advertising. When children finally
reach the
ages of 8 to 14 they readily see the differences between television
programs and
commercials, are less affected by production factors, have lower trust
in
commercials, and better recall and understand persuasive intent.
7. Goldberg, Marvin E. (1990). A Quasi-Experiment
Assessing the Effectiveness of TV Advertising Directed to Children.
Journal of
marketing Research, 27, 445-454.
Goldberg sought to determine if television
advertising
impacts the decision making of children when determining what kinds of
toys they
want. The researchers are in agreement with past studies that
commercials
influence children considerably. Goldberg’s results showed that when
comparing French speaking children from Quebec who live under the
Quebec law
banning advertising to children on television to English speaking
children in
Montreal who have access to U.S. television stations, the English
speaking
children watched more American television and were able to recognize
significantly more toys available in stores.
8. Greenfield, P. M., Yut, E., Chung, M., Land,
D.,
Kreider, H., Pantoja, M. & Horsley, K. (1990). The Program Length
Commercial: A Study of the Effects of Television/Toy Tie-Ins on
Imaginative
Play. Children & Television: Images in a Cultural Sociocultural
World,
Berry, G. L. & Asamen, J. K., Newbury Park, California: SAGE
Publications,
Inc., 1993, 53-72.
The Authors of this study look into how
television has
become a major tool for marketing to children through the use of
commercials.
This is shown through the use of toys in television programs. The
authors are in
agreement with other scholars that when the television industry and toy
marketers join up to produce television shows with product-based
cartoons the
results are an inhibitive creative imagination and a stimulated
imitative
imagination in children. Imitative imagination was shown through
television
eliciting more recall-oriented responses than creative responses. The
authors
also show that when program based toys are linked to a show, they act
as a
constraint on creative imagination.
9. Isler, L., Popper, E. T. & Ward, S. (1987)
Children’s Purchase Requests and parental Responses: Results From A
Diary
Study. Journal of Advertising Research, 27, 28-40.
Previous research shows that the frequency of
requests
for toys, food, etc. decline with age and 62% of parents complied with
their
children’s requests. The authors of this study sought out to get the
precise frequency of requests for toys, food, etc. It was observed that
over a
28-day period, 13.5 requests per child were made. It was also observed
that
requests declined with age, which is consistent with previous research.
Most
requests occurred at home, but a large percentage of requests for
younger
children were made while shopping, which is also consistent with
previous
research. The results also showed that when parent’s refused to comply
with their children’s requests conflicts were rare. It was also
reported
that citing television advertisements when a child wanted a product
decreased
with age, which also happens to be consistent with previous research.
10. Levin, S. R., Petros, T. V. & Petrella,
F. W.
(1982). Preschoolers’ Awareness of Television Advertising. Child
Development, 53, 933-937.
The authors of this study sought out to examine
the
ability of preschool children to correctly identify television
advertisements as
programs in an actual television-viewing situation. Past studies have
revealed
that children are influenced by television advertisements as soon as
they begin
to watch television. This has shown that children ask more for toys
they had
seen on television. However, past research has also revealed that
children’s visual attention levels with commercial onset indicate that
young children can distinguish between programs and commercials. The
results of
this present study reveal that children are able to understand the
terms
commercial and program and can use them to discriminate between the
two.
However, the results also show that the distinction between awareness
and
understanding of television advertising for children is nonexistent.
Children’s ability to identify commercials on television does not imply
that they understand the intent and motives of commercials. These
results are
consistent with other research conducted.
11. Kunkel, D. & Roberts, D. (1991). Young
minds and
Marketplace Values: Issues in children’s Television Advertising.
Journal
of Social Issues, 47, 57-72.
The authors are in agreement with past research
of the
issue of children’s vulnerability to commercial persuasion was
overlooked
throughout television’s early years. Not until 1960 did the attention
to
children’s television change do to different practices in broadcasting
for
children. In 1972 studies were published stating that children up to
age 5 had a
hard time distinguishing between commercials and programs. The
researchers also
noted that past research showed that children did not understand the
persuasive
intent of advertising until age 7-8 and did not fully understand it
until
several years later. Other past research revealed that children who
area unaware
of the persuasive intent of television advertising tend to express
greater
belief in commercials and a higher frequency of purchase requests. In
1978 the
FTC proposed to either ban of severely restrict all television
advertising to
children. Corporate conglomerates opposed this. In the 1980s a shift
toward the
“marketplace approach” was made emphasizing open market
competition.
12. Kurdek, L. A. & Rodgon, M. M. (1975).
Perceptual,
Cognitive, and Affective Perspective Taking in Kindergarten Through
Sixth-Grade
Children. Developmental Psychology, 11, 643-650.
Previous research has shown that children’s
social
interaction influences and is influenced by their ability to take
another’s perspective. Perspective taking has usually been considered
as a
summary variable, obscuring the possible multidimensional nature of the
cognitive skill. This present study hypothesized that perceptual,
cognitive, and
affective perspective taking would increase with grade level. The
results showed
that perceptual perspective taking increased with older children,
cognitive
perspective taking increased in basically all children, and affective
perspective taking in situations minimizing the likelihood that
children would
project their own affective responses to a story character decreased
with grade
level. These results support previous research done in this area, and
it
supports the view that perspective taking is a multidimensional
social-cognitive
construct.
13. Macklin, M. Carole (1985). Do Young Children
Understand the Selling intent of Commercials? The Journal of Consumer
Affairs,
19, 293-340.
In 1978 research conducted by the FTC concluded
that
children under the age of 8 could not understand the selling intent of
television advertisements. Later research conducted showed that this
was not
true and that children do have some idea of the selling intent of
advertisement.
The Purpose of Macklin’s research was to re-examine the use of
non-verbal
measures that were used to prove that children could comprehend the
intent of
commercial advertisements. The results showed that opposite of the
previous
research in that children are unable to understand the intent of
television
advertisement.
14. Pine, K. J. & Nash, A. (2002). Dear
Santa: The
Effects of Television Advertising on Young Children. International
Journal on
Young Children, 26, 529-539.
The authors of this study were in agreement with
other
researchers in that children are exposed to the selling messages of
advertisers
through television in their everyday lives. The authors sought to
explore how
toy advertising affects children by studying their requests to Santa
Clause,
monitoring toy commercials, and collecting television-viewing data. The
results
revealed that children who watched more television commercials were
found to
request more products from Santa Clause. They also requested more brand
name
products as well. This information parallels the results of many other
researchers studying what children ask their parents to buy them. The
results
also showed that watching television alone produced more requests
suggesting
that children have better recall when alone and that children are more
susceptible to advertising when alone.
15. Roedder, D. L., Sternthal, B. & Calder,
B. J.
(1983) Attitude-Behavior Consistency in Children’s Responses to
Television
Advertising. Journal of Marketing Research, 20, 337-349.
Past research has indicated that children have
certain
limitations in their processing abilities, younger children are unable
to
discriminate between programs and commercials, are less aware of
advertisements
persuasive intent, pay more attention to commercials than their older
counterparts, can be persuaded by advertising, and can product choice
can be
affected through advertisement. This present study looks to apply this
current
information on the effectiveness of television advertisements on
children to
making children’s ability to making decisions among alternatives. In
other
words are children’s attitudes consistent with choices in response to
advertisements. The results showed that when choice alternatives are
similar,
many in number, or require the processing of detailed information,
their
comparison abilities become overwhelmed. From this we are able to see
that the
deficit in children’s comparative skills could be a prevalent as the
deficits in processing in advertising messages, which is then
consistent with
previous research.
16. Ross, R. P., Campbell, T., Wright, J. C.,
Huston, A.
C., Rice, M. L. & Turk, P. (1984). When Celebrities Talk, Children
Listen:
An Experimental Analysis of Children’s Responses to TV Ads With
Celebrity
Endorsement. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 5, 185-202.
The Authors looked into if celebrity
endorsements of
products on television impact children. Currently there is a
prohibition on
celebrity endorsement during times when television is mostly geared
towards
young children. This was put into effect because previous research
showed
children not having enough cognitive development to fully understand
what is
going on. The results of this study supported past research in that
celebrity
endorsements influenced children’s perceptual and cognitive responses
to
advertisements. It made them perceive the product in an exaggerated way
and made
them less likely to understand the ad was staged and synthetic. The
results
however showed that age did not matter which is inconsistent with
previous
research that suggested that the effects are independent of cognitive
and
metacognitive developmental changes.
17. Rossiter, J. R. & Robertson, T. S.
(1974).
Children’s TV Commercials: Testing the Defenses. Journal of
Communication,
24, 137-144.
The authors of this study looked into the
persuasion
process of children’s susceptibility to television advertising focusing
on
the cognitive and behavioral impacts of commercials. Previous research
showed
that children’s mental capability to understand the commercial concept
progresses with age and grade level. The results of this study show
that
children with the strongest defenses to commercials became ineffective
predictors of toy preference after exposing the children to a strong
amount of
advertisements. The results also show there was a shift from
attitudinal
defenses to cognitive defenses with increasing grade level. Cognitive
may
therefore be a higher order construct that attitude.
18. Seiter, Ellen (1993). Sold Separately. New
Brunswick,
New Jersey: Rutgers University Press.
Seiter examines the controversy over television
advertising to children; specifically what commercials look like to
children and
why they find them entertaining. She argues that commercials are
ideological and
are open to many interpretations by all. Seiter also argues that
parents and
children negotiate all kinds of deals over television and toys which
are
primarily based on what kinds and how many commercials the child is
exposed to,
along with parents income, cultural capital, workload, and beliefs
about the
nature of childhood. Seiter agrees with other scholars in that
commercials
distort gender and racial differences among the way it is expressed and
organized, but she disagrees with what scholars have said about
commercials
being bad moral judgments. Seiter does however note that commercial
television
places a burden on mothers and puts children at a disadvantage when
parents do
not have the money and time to provide the approved alternatives to the
commercialized toys.
19. Ward, S., Wackman, D. B. & Wartella, E.
(1977).
How Children Learn to Buy: The Development of Consumer
Information-Processing
Skills. Beverly Hills, California: SAGE Publications, Inc.
The authors explore how children acquire the
knowledge
and skills relevant to consumer behavior. This is done through how
children
process information relevant to consumer decisions. The authors also
look into
how the influence of television advertising and the influence of the
family
influence consumer socialization. They found that Piaget’s cognitive
developmental theory in regards to that younger children have a
tendency to
respond more to the immediate perceptual aspects of stimuli in
television
advertising. Another finding was that age does not make a difference
with
children’s capacity to learn consumption related skills. This seems to
be
consistent with only some other studies conducted within this field.
The authors
also found that when parent’s declined to buy their children the
products
advertised, their cognitive abilities did not allow them to fully
understand
why, but when children are exposed to the dangers of advertising, they
are able
to understand better why parent’s tell them no.
20. Ward, S. & Wackmen, D. B. (1972).
Children’s
Purchase Influence Attempts and Parental Yielding. Journal of marketing
Research, 9, 316-319.
The research presented in this study sought to
examine
second-order consequences, focusing on the impact of television
advertising on
mother-child interaction. Specifically, children’s attempts to
influence
mothers’ purchases of products and mothers’ yielding to the attempts
was looked at. Past research was able to relate children’s mass media
use
to parent-child interaction. Other research indicates that mothers feel
television commercials influence their children. The results of this
study
showed that children’s purchasing influence attempts decrease with age,
but mothers’ yielding to requests increases with age. Parent-child
conflict was shown to have some relation to influence attempts and
yielding.
Other results showed that parents who restrict viewing are likely not
to yield
to purchase influence attempts.
21. Ward, S., Wackman, D., & Wartella, E.
(1975).
Children Learning To Buy: The Development of Consumer Information
Processing
Skills. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Marketing Science Institute.
The authors of this book have looked to
characterize and
increase the understanding of processes that children acquire consumer
attitudes
and behaviors. Stage theories of cognitive development have been used
as a tool
to guide age related changes in the information processing strategies
that
children utilize. Research focused on children’s attention behavior
aspect
of the cognitive development model show that age related differences
have been
found in their attention to television commercials relative to
programming and
depends on the degree of audio and visual complexity. The authors show
that
children’s exposure to commercials at certain ages is a socializing
agent
when it comes to consumerism. They are more likely to base attitudes
toward
specific commercials on message characteristics than on attitudes
toward the
product itself, and are less likely to feel that commercials always
tell the
truth.
22. Ward, S., Wackman, D. B. & Wartella, E.
(1977).
How Children Learn to Buy: The Development of Consumer
Information-Processing
Skills. Beverly Hills, California: SAGE Publications, Inc.
The authors explore how children acquire the
knowledge
and skills relevant to consumer behavior. This is done through how
children
process information relevant to consumer decisions. The authors also
look into
how the influence of television advertising and the influence of the
family
influence consumer socialization. They found that Piaget’s cognitive
developmental theory in regards to that younger children have a
tendency to
respond more to the immediate perceptual aspects of stimuli in
television
advertising. Another finding was that age does not make a difference
with
children’s capacity to learn consumption related skills. This seems to
be
consistent with only some other studies conducted within this field.
The authors
also found that when parent’s declined to buy their children the
products
advertised, their cognitive abilities did not allow them to fully
understand
why, but when children are exposed to the dangers of advertising, they
are able
to understand better why parent’s tell them no.
23. Wartella, Ellen, “Individual Differences in
Children’s Responses to Television Advertising,” Children and the
Faces of Television: Teaching, Violence, Selling, Palmer, E. L. &
Dorr, A.
New York: Academic Press, Inc., 1981, 307-322.
The Impact of television advertising on
children’s
consumer product decision making showed that the major individual
difference
that mediates advertising’s influence is the age of the viewers as
opposed
to sex, race, and social class. This then dealt with the level of
development of
the children’s information processing abilities. Amongst the factors
that
Wartella explored in this study such as desire for advertised products,
memory
for advertised information, requests for products, and comprehension of
the
purpose of advertising, the only variable that showed to be consistent
with
other studies that mediates individual differences of preferences for
advertisements was age. Younger children’s attention to commercials
appears to be more heavily influenced by various production factors,
they have a
lower understanding of advertising claims, and their trust in
advertising is
greater.
24. Young, Brian M. (1990). Television
Advertising and
Children. New York: Oxford University Press.
Young looks at how children are not constant,
immutable
and unchangeable, but are social constructions that will redefine
themselves
depending on how the socially constructed aspects of society drift and
change.
He argues that when advertising is aimed at children the relationship
between
the two becomes a “psychological minefield” (16). Because of this
children thus need protection. Protection is needed is argued through
other
scholars’ research in that advertising enhances and emphasizes
selfishness
and self-centeredness. Also advertising is regarded to influence the
criteria we
use when we make decisions. Advertising is also looked upon as
promoting a
materialistic society with goods and services that encourage certain
beliefs
about society. Young is in agreement with what other scholars have
found in that
when children are at young ages they have a hard time understanding why
commercials are on T.V., are not aware of what commercials are, and
what
commercials try to do. Young also argues that children are unable to
tell when a
T.V. program ended and a commercial began leaving children vulnerable
to the
stimulus properties of the ad.
Tim Allen
THE FIRST AMENDMENT v. THE SIXTH AMENDMENT:
Can Scott Peterson Receive a Fair Trial?
Campbell, Douglas S. Free Press V. Fair Trial:
Supreme
Court Decisions since 1807. London, Praeger Publishers. 1994.
Campbell has put together an entire book of
relevant
Supreme Court cases which involve the issue of fair trials and free
press. The
historical work of the court are necessary in answering the question of
how to
achieve a balance between amendments 1 and 6, as there is obviously no
higher
court, and in order to assess whose argument is better- that of the
defendant
feeling his constitutional rights have been violated or the media
feeling the
same- it is important to understand and cite what the highest court has
ruled in
the past.
Chiasson Jr., Lloyd. The Press on Trial: Crimes
and
Trials as Media Events. Westport, Greenwood Press. 1997.
Mr. Chiasson looks at 15 cases and the impact
that the
media had on how the case was carried out, the public response, and the
verdict.
One of the cases examined by Chiasson was that of OJ Simpson, which is
of
particular interest given advances in media technology that were more
apparent
than in much earlier cases written about in the book.
Freedman, Warren. Press and Media Access to the
Criminal
Courtroom. New York, Quorum Books. 1988.
Mr. Freedman asks whether the entertainment that
the media
must harness in order to improve ratings violates the 6th amendment.
The
article also looks at the workings of the English Parliament in
determining
where the critical balance can be achieved. Further, his work on
technological
advances in both media and in the courtroom itself is useful in drawing
conclusions about why the problem of unfair trials in the name of
interesting
news broadcasts came to exist at all.
Gerald, J. Edward. News of Crime: Courts and
Press in
Conflict. Westport, Greenwood Press. 1983.
Mr. Gerald also looks at the complex relationship
between
the courts and the press in terms of constitutional amendments 1, 6,
and 14. He
focuses also on how court cases become huge media events, as in one
media outlet
capturing the public’s interest in a particular case, which then
spreads
to other media outlets causing for an all-out media frenzy.
Graber Doris A. Mass Media & American
Politics. Washington D.C., CQ Press. 2002
Graber has written a comprehensive look at the
media and
its effects on politics as a whole, with a section on the effects of
the media
on American courts. She gives a history of courtroom coverage and a
general
outline of different sides involved in the debate: that is of whether
the
media’s right to free press outweighs the defendant’s right to a
fair trial.
Haiman, Franklyn S. and Kane, Peter E. Murder,
Courts,
and the Press: Issues in Free Press/Fair Trial. Carbondale, Southern
Illinois
Press. 1986.
Haiman and Kane uses case studies to look at how
the media
works to distort the leal process in many ways, including the ways that
a
defendant’s social rank affects the type of investigation and trial
that
follows indictment. He also writes of the media’s treatment of jurors
and
how the court’s response to free press in terms of juror identification
and otherwise addresses the importance of juror annomydity. Also, the
role of
the surrounding environment makes for more public trials in many cases,
as well
as in cases where the victims or defendents are public figures (eg
Sharon
Tate).
Hardaway, Robert and Tummnello. PRETRIAL
PUBLICITY IN
CRIMINAL CASES OF NATIONAL NOTORIETY: CONSTRUCTING A REMEDY FOR THE
REMEDILESS
WRONG American University Law Review. October, 1996
This article also examines how and why trials in the
public eye are problematic for their constitutionality. Hardaway and
Tumminello
write that there are four types of trials which become of national
concern:
“(1) tabloid-type cases typically involving unusually sordid facts
appealing to the nation's voyeuristic tendencies, such as the Pamela
Smart
murder trial; (2) cases in which the nature of the crime is so heinous
or
shocking that the nation's media follow it closely, such as Charles
Manson's
murder trial, Jeffrey Dahmer's murder trial, and the Oklahoma City
Federal
Center bombing; (3) cases in which the defendants are celebrities, such
as O.J.
Simpson's double-murder trial; and (4) cases in which the victims are
celebrities, such as the trial of the assassination of Robert F.
Kennedy.”
They argue that there are not nearly enough standards in how courts
establish a
jury that is truly unbiased and as such, public opinion becomes far too
important a factor in determining the verdict in any of the types of
trials
which are under the media spotlight.
Hengstler, Gary A. The Media’s Role in Changing
the
Face of U.S. Courts. An Electronic Journal of the U.S. Department of
State.
Volume 8, Number 1, May 2003
Mr. Hengstler examines the changing face of US
courts in
terms of how media has influenced many aspects of the judicial process,
from how
judges react to increased media coverage in a way which protects the
media’s first amendment right to free press and the defendant’s
sixth amendment right to a fair and public trial. He outlines
alternative
methods for the courts to manage achieving a fair balance between both
interests, and explores the effectiveness of “court public information
officers” who have been created to address this problem.
Linton, James M. Camera Access to Courtrooms:
Canadian,
U.S., and Australian Experiences. Canadian Journal of Communication.
Volume 18,
Number 1, 1993
Article compares the extent to which the media
can access
courtroom proceedings in the US, Canada, and Australia. Given that
access is
most restricted in Australia and least restricted in the United States,
conclusions about the culture as a whole can be drawn if one agrees
with the
research that has been done showing that with more restrictions on
media access
into courts comes more fair trials. Pressures in America, including the
amount
of emphasis placed on profits and indeed much higher profits in
general, have
led to an increase in courtroom media coverage at the expense of fair
trials.
Rosman, Katherine. “JonBenet, Inc.”
Brill’s Content, February 2000, pp. 96-107, 128.
Used in class, this article attempts to answer
the
question of why the murder of Jon Benet was a bigger deal than any
murders
documented on Court TV by the dozen every day, and applies directly to
the case
against Scott Peterson, which is experiencing essentially the same type
of
extreme media coverage given no extraordinary fame or nature of the
crime.
Thaler, Paul. The Spectacle: Media and the Making
of the
O.J. Simpson Story. London, Praeger. 1997
In this book, Thaler looks at particularly why
the media
turned the OJ Simpson trial into the media explosion that it was. He
writes:
“The media failed to understand the nature of what they are and how
they
work. They failed to see the powerful influence of their technology,
not only on
the Simpson story but on the Simpson trial. And so they followed their
machines
into the courtroom believing in technology's inherent goodness. But as
the case
slips into the folds of history, the question hauntingly remains: Would
the
criminal trial of O. J. Simpson have come to a different, more complete
closure
had a rather inconspicuous machine--a television camera--been absent
from
Department 103?” He looks also at the failings of Judge Ito and the
influence that race played in leading to a bias which may have allowed
for a
constitutional trial if it were held before the introduction of mass
media into
American courtrooms, but certainly not after.
Thaler, Paul. The Watchful Eye: American Justice
in the
Age of the Television Trial. London, Praeger Publishers. 1994.
This work focuses primarily on New York’s
decision
to allow cameras in courtrooms and the effect this policy has had. He
contends
that many of the problems created by a television trial, as well as the
benefits, are accepted or dismissed by the American public in the name
of a
blind and undying faith in technology as the natural path of all. He
also looks
at the establishment and rise of Court TV, which at this point is
central to the
public’s understanding of the legal system given its easy
accessibility. He asserts that often, trials become spectacles when the
issues in the trial
itself involve issues that are of great public importance and part of
other,
larger debates, as with domestic violence, insider trading, etc.
Wasserman, Jim. “DNA in Scott Peterson hearing
becoming mainstream justice tool” Assocated Press, 11/03/03. Associated
Press.
There are thousands and thousands of current news
articles, several of which will be used in the final paper, though this
particular article is of interest because it explains how Peterson’s
defense team is challenging the use of a specific type of DNA that has
only
recently been disputed. Though current news articles are not included
in this
draft of the bibliography, this article is particularly interesting
because if
this were not a mainstream case, to challenge a DNA type that has
consistently
been used since DNA has been introduced as evidence raises questions
about the
future of forensic science in court as well as the media’s impact on
this
issue.
Bruschke, Jon and Loges, William E. The Effect of
Pretrial
Publicity on Trial Outcomes
*not sure how to cite this source...
Proves using empirical data that the following is
true:
“(a) greater probability of conviction is associated with low rather
than
high levels of publicity, (b) defendants fared better under moderate
rather than
no publicity levels, and (c) for those defendants who are convicted,
any degree
of pretrial publicity is associated with longer sentences.” Important
to
use real testable data in paper, and this is arguably the best tests
that have
been conducted in this area.
Dan Olbrych Bibliography
I decided to put these sources in the order of
their use
in my research paper. There will be an introduction explaining the film
industry, specifically advertisement. But beyond that we dive right in,
to the
new way for a film to make money. Hype:
The term has been used more recently because of
the
internet. This appears to be the fastest growing form of advertising,
not
counting pop up ads. I’m talking about undercover sites.
http://www.insideresidentevil.com/
This site is author free, claiming that if they
knew what
I’ve done I could be in trouble, and so on. But this frequently
maintained site has the highest quality of photos and news for the
upcoming
action movie, Resident Evil. Bad HTML coding is no disguise for a
studio
run/fake movie-spy website. This is the most recent and clever concepts
being
used to hype up movies. People think they have some kind of in,
classified
information, photos that aren’t supposed to be seen, jokes on them.
http://www.thematrix.com
Very successful film, The Matrix, has an
incredibly huge
website. But beyond that of the normal interface is a secret binary
code access
mainframe. In the theme of the movies, web heads can hack their way
into loads
of secret information, pictures, clips, and interviews. AINT IT COOL
NEWS (the
Website) The most geek driven message board in the world is full of
information.
Run by super geek and author, Harry Knowles, this serves as a melting
pot for
loads of hype, made up of legit nerds, or the occasional Hollywood
nerd, (one
employed by the system plugging the movie) This new style of online
advertisement is done in a hit or miss fashion. Its safe to say that
hype does
have an impact, recently seen with the hit and flop at the same time
Hulk. It’s a sketchy world, the world of the internet. But as it grows
more and
more with each day, the power that it has will soon be used to the
fullest. But
we are starting to see the new wave of things even today.
Trailers and Teasers:
http://www.moceanvenice.com
This is the
only resource for this new but impressive trailer company. They have
answered
several of my questions regarding, super-teasers, and how much of an
impact and
important trailers have become in a money standpoint. Case Studies:
Signs: A
very successful film that didn’t advertise using start power (Mel
Gibson).
A short Video Documentary “Signs: The Advertising” dives into the
plan the producers and advertising team used to market the film. 12
Monkeys: A
mediocre success, but owing a lot to clever advertising, discussed by
director
(Terry Gilliam, of Monty Python fame), producers, and the advertising
team, in
the documentary “The Hamster Wheel”. Other Sources Film Art by David
Bordwell, Kristin Thompson • This text I’m very familiar with due to
its use in film school, CSF. The book explains thoroughly how movies
are
created. Starting with pre-production, advertising is one of the first
things a
producer must deal with. The understanding of who the movie is intended
for,
and how can attract more than just the targeted audience are a few of
the
tackled concepts. These ideas are greater shown in the case studies,
where we
see first hand how the team puts together posters, trailers, and
taglines to get
people to see the movie. Ain't It Cool? Hollywood's Redheaded Stepchild
Speaks
Out (the Book) Both by Harry Knowles • While Harry himself has recently
become a producer, all because of a website full of honesty. The book
expresses
Harry’s beliefs in a more professional manor; he rambles but also
covers
the problems that Hollywood has. His dislikes and hates. Box Office
Mojo
• A great database for numbers, broken down to the dollar. Enabling one
to compare the cost of commercials to posters, and budget to profit.
IMDB
• Another online database covering more than money, but al aspects of
whatever, film specific. Including a collection of news (old and
related) as
well as posters and comments from fellow webbies.
I also found teh first really scholarly text,
"Selling the
Sizzle" by Barry Avrich, though im only half through it is proving to
be a great
use.
Kimberly Connor
Annotated
Bibliography
Carragee, K., Meinhofer, W., Ryan, C. (2001).
Theory
into practice: Framing, the news media, and collective action. Journal of Broadcasting &
Electronic Media, 45 (1), 175.
This journal relates the concept of framing as
applied to
the interaction between social movements and the media. The Media
Research and
Action Project is the center of the article, where the authors write
about how
project uses frame analysis to assist social movements and groups to
get further
in obtaining their goals through the use of the media. Basically, the
MRAP
helps organizations frame their theories in the media. This article is
a review
of the process the MRAP uses and the outcomes that it sees.
Goldberg, B. (2002). Promoting life on the front
page
(Pro-life and the mass media). National Right to Life News, 29
(2), pNA.
A journal article evaluating pro-life in the mass
media. The author is obviously pro-life, seeing what journal it comes
from, and he
evaluates how media covers pro-life movements, or the lack thereof.
Goldberg
also suggests ways of getting more coverage as well as positive
coverage for the
pro-life movement. He argues that there is a liberal bias in the mass
media,
but the more mainstream community that you live in, the more balanced
the
coverage on abortion is.
Lomicky, C., & Salestrom, C. (1998).
Anti-Abortion
Advertising and Access to the Airwaves: A Public Interest Doctrine
Dilemma.
Journal of Broadcasting &
Electronic Media, 42 (4), 491.
This article explores the public interest dilemma
involving two competing
interests: the concern for the welfare of children
and the public interest in informed political debate. The spark for
this paper
was the ruling by a federal court that broadcasters cannot refuse
daytime or
prime time television federal candidates' political
advertisements
containing abortion images. The problem that broadcasters had with
these
advertisements was a moral issue and this article discusses that. This
article
is an example of the problems that pro-life organizations or believers
face in
the mass media. This was more of an evaluation on the court case and
the legal
aspects, but also showed the fight that people have to go through to
get the
abortion topic in the media.
Norris, Pippa (ed.) 1996. Women, media, and politics. New
York:
Oxford University Press.
The core purpose of this book is to bring
together the
separate disciplines of women’s rights to provide a “comprehensive
and systematic understanding of the relationship between women, the
media, and
American politics.” The book uses many methods including surveying,
interviewing journalists and broadcasters, focus groups and
experimentation with
people and their reactions to media messages. It also uses content
analysis,
and research of the nature of press coverage. Chapter 6 and chapter 10
are the
most relevant to the media-framing topic. The former speaks of the
gender gap
in framing, and the social movements that come with such. The latter
speaks of
feminists and feminism in the news and how they and their opinion on
things such
as abortion are framed.
Olasky, Marvin. 1988. The Press and abortion, 1938-1988.
New
Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
This book discusses the history of abortion in
the mass
media. The author researched the different views that the press held on
abortion throughout the years, and discussed different time period
events that
were going on that also influenced how abortion was depicted in the
press. It
reports on the sensationalism of abortion stories in the
19th century, and discusses
the
issue of the press backing away from anti-abortion coverage that may
have
alienated some of their readers and advertisers. The book also
discusses how
coverage went against the pro-life movement, then against the
pro-choice
movement and then swung into a more neutral zone. This book is a
historical
review of abortion and print media, and is dominated by the
press-coverage in
the New York area. The author gave both sides of the debate fair
coverage.
Scheufele, D.A. (1999). Framing as a theory of
media
effects. Journal of
Communication, 49
(1), 103-122.
This article systematizes approaches to framing in
political communication and attempts to integrate them into a
comprehensive
model that can be shared throughout academia without the vagueness of
what it
actually is. Scheufele developed a framing model with four key
processes to be
addressed: frame building, frame setting, individual-level processes of
framing,
and a feedback loop from audiences to journalists. This is a very good
article
that helps conceptualize framing analysis.
Shaw, D. (1990). Abortion coverage: balanced or
tilted? A
little of both. The Quill,
78
(8), 32-35.
This is a journal article that analyzed abortion
coverage
in mass media, as well as journalist’s attitudes and objectivity when
it
comes to abortion. Shaw argues that most journalists do not oppose
abortion
because it is not the legitimate thing to do, and that they mostly see
abortion
opposers as religious fanatics. Shaw includes names and opinions of
reporters
who have done a lot of coverage on abortion. These journalists relate
their
experience with abortion in the newsroom. Shaw analyzes the different
sides of
the abortion issue, and gives each side equal weight in the article.
Shaw
argues that bias does often exist.
Sobel, M., & Mouw, T. (2001). Culture Wars
and
Opinion Polarization: The Case of Abortion. The American Journal of Sociology,
106(4), 913.
The authors of this article use polarization
analysis to
evaluate what is known as culture wars and to research opinion
polarization. They approach abortion as a moral issue that many people
have different opinions
on this issue, and not just the clear cut for or against attitude. The
authors
argue that abortion is not becoming increasingly polarized as some may
think and
that America is not any more divided on this topic than in the past.
This
article deals less with abortion in the media, but more with how
abortion is
viewed by the American public, and this helps me realize how the
framing of
abortion begins.
A case study on
the
abortion debate. (2001) Retrieved October 27, 2003 from
http://repositories.cdlib.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1011&context=csd
This case study analyzes media framing literature
to
discuss how certain social movements create their frames in response to
opposition in order to get media coverage. It also analyzes how the
movement’s organizational structure and identity can facilitate or
constrain its media coverage. The findings the author reports is that
the
organizations framing strategy matters in getting coverage, but its
structure
and identity does affect this coverage.
Frame analysis.
(n.d.) Retrieved October 22, 2003 from
http://www.bechervaise.com/DBAR4.htm
The author of this article conceptualizes frame
analysis,
how it was coined and the influential people involved with its
development. Not
only is frame analysis discussed, but it is also applied to business in
the
article to show how useful it is in many areas. The article delves into
a
discussion about the influential people involved with frame analysis
development, including Erving Goffman. Frame analysis was portrayed as
a
formalized and disciplined approach in this article. The author argues
that the
frame provides the rules and principles, which guides one towards
understanding
the meaning of experienced events.
How the media
frames
political issues. (n.d.) Retrieved October 22, 2003 from
http://www.scottlondon.com/reports/frames.html
The author of this article claims that news
frames are
cultural and are attuned to the greater social themes. He claims that
journalists frame the news in objective and episodic formats. London
analyzes
the news through research, and presents his opinion in this paper.
Locating Frames
in the
Discursive Universe. (1997). Retrieved October 22, 2003 from
http://www.socresonline.org.uk/2/3/4.html.
This article was retrieved from
a website titles Sociological Research Online, and is an academic site.
The
article analyzes framing literature. The author then develops a
theoretical
case for defining frames as “semi-structured elements of discourse
which
people use to make sense of information they encounter.” The article
analyzes a number of authors and their approaches to framing analysis.
The
author agrees with most of the points that he presented about the other
authors’ views on frame analysis. He argues that discursive structural
frames and cultural frames constitute two of the forms of discourse in
any
society. He also argues that frame analysis has its limits and that
these need
to be recognized.
Shaping
Abortion
Discourse. (2002). Retrieved October 27, 2003 from
http://assets.cambridge.org/052179045X/sample/052179045XWS.pdf
This book compares Germany and the United States
and
their abortion policies and debates on these policies. The book focuses
more on
the abortion talk rather than the policy and how cultural discourse on
abortion
is shaped. The authors studied the media content as a way of assessing
the
cultural impact of this highly political, and moral, debate and they
analysis
abortion through public discourse. The chapter that was the most
important to
this topic was the chapter on theoretical framework where the authors
discuss
the mass media as an arena for public discourse to take place. They
claim that
issue frames call the readers attention to certain events and their
causes and
consequences and then direct our attention away from others. This book
provides
a comparative overview of framing that is used in both countries.
Included in
this article are some of their interviews with journalists who write
extensively
on abortion in the media.
Robert Savage
Barker, Martin and Petley, Julian (eds.). Ill
Effects: The
Media/ Violence Debate. New York, Routeledge: 2001.
The authors of the book liken the ‘violence in
the
media’ debate to the witch hunts in early America, emphasizing that the
question ‘what are the effects of violence’ is a bogus one, but
although the answer may never be truley found the “endless subsequent
claims about media violence perform crucial social and political
functions.” The authors evaluate the problems of defining violence and
media effects in an effort to show readers the contradictions that
exist in the
debate.
Berger, Gilda. Violence and the Media. New York,
Franklin Watts: 1989
The author points out how much time Americans
spend in
front of the television, and the amount of violence portrayed in the
programs. The increasing prevalence of violence in television has
desensitized us tp
violence to the point at which we almost do not notice it or ignore it
easily. She explains the one argument that defenders of violence on
television have, and
also the many arguments against violence o television. She includes
recommendations for dealing with and portraying violence on television.
Carter, Cynthia and Weaver, C. Kay. Violence and
the
Media. Philadelphia, Open University Press: 2003.
With a critical look into violence portrayed in
the news,
television programs, and advertisements, the authors explain far
different
theories involving violent television and it’s effect on society; the
behavioral effects theory, the desensitization theory, the cultivation
theory,
and the limited effects argument. Each of these theories is explained
in great
depth to show their contrasting natures, their successes, and their
shortcomings.
Freedman, Jonathan L. Media, Violence, and It’s
Effect on Aggression. University of Toronto: 2002.
With a close look into empirical studies
concerning the
relationship between violence on television and real violence in
society,
Freedman makes his stance very clear: there is no direct correlation.
The
author looks to other ills of society such as poverty as influences on
violence
in society and illustrates how, despite the increasing amount of
violence in
television, there has been a dramatic decrease in crime. He emphasizes
that the
research done shows no direct relationship.
Goldstein, Jeffrey. Why We Watch: The Attractions
of
Violent Entertainment. New York, Oxford Press: 1998
The editor of this book talks about how violence
appeals
to the general public, and how those who speak out against violence in
the media
are neglecting the people’s taste for such stimuli. The book seeks to
solve the mystery of why people are so drawn to violence and the social
implications of this obsession with violence. The authors note the need
for a
focus on both production and reception of violence through the media,
instead of
following the tradition of studying simply what comes out of the media.
The
book covers a range of topics involving violent entertainment and our
society’s affinity for it.
Howitt, Dennis. Mass Media, Violence and Society.
New
York, Halsted: 1975.
Writing in the mid-1970's, Howitt argues that the
public
debate on violence, which was fueled by massive amounts of government
funding,
have failed to show a direct causal relationship between violence in
the media,
specifically television, and violence in reality. He is speaking in a
time when
violence in real life was at an all time high in the U.S., and violence
in the
media, although small in our perspectives, was increasing also. The
general
public opinion was that the two were directly related. By examining the
individual worth of each study devoted to the matter of finding causal
relationships, Howitt illustrates quite clearly the invalidity of their
claims.
Larson, Otto N. (Ed) Violence and the Mass Media.
New
York, Harper and Row: 1968
The author pays close attention to fictional
violence in
television and the media, and it’s effects on violence in the real
world. He emphasizes the entertainment aspects of the mass media,
particularly
television, leaving news and information programs on the back burner.
He finds
it important to survey how and if mass communication affects public
opinion and
further, public policy. Like others, he points out that the
controversies over
violence in television and mass media prove to be beneficial to society.
Lemert, James B. “Does Mass Communication Change
Public Opinion after all?” Chicago, Nelson-Hall: 1981.
The author examines the need for a new approach
to the
question in the title. The book sheds light on the different problems
and
difficulties with the research on this topic. The author makes it clear
that
public opinion and widely shared attitudes toward specific issues do
not
correspond with eachother as many social scientists had hoped.
Potter, James W. The 11 Myths of Media Violence.
California, Sage Publications: 2003.
The author, in a very persausive tone and format,
argues
his position on violence and the media; that they are closely
interrelated. He
point out that the majority of the country agrees with him. He presents
eleven
myths involving media violence, ranging from beliefs that the media
doesn’t effect people, to the belief that there is nothing individuals
can
do to solve the problem. Potter writes in a very revolutionary way that
calls
society to action.
Potter, James W. On Media Violence. California,
Sage
Publications: 1999.
With a close eye on the environments in which
violent
media are viewed and the certain types of viewers, Potter explains many
possible
short term and long term effects that media violence has on viewers. He
is very
careful to point out that the right research methods are necessary to
produce
uncontradictory results and theories, and how methodological tasks must
be
addressed to guarantee success.
Strasburger, Victor C. Adolescents and the Media;
Medical
and Psychological Impact. Volume 33. California, Sage Publications:
1995.
Ch.2.
The author illustrates a positive correlation
between
media violence and aggressive behavior, and uses the data from many
studies to
prove his point, which is that television, and more broadly, all mass
media,
trigger aggressive and antisocial behavior when containing such
behaviors. He
lists many circumstances in which violence has a bigger effect,
including
justifying violence, violence with no consequences, and the viewer
being similar
to the violent person. He points out that although some studies have
contradicted his findings, they don’t hold enough ground to render his
theories inconclusive.