Leonardus Colucio S.P.D.
ca. 1405 from Leonardo Bruni to Coluccio Salutati
original commentary by Nate Carney: revised and edited by Jacques Bailly

[1] Quo consilio Homerus nomina rebus personisque tribuerit.
Non satis conspicuum tibi factum ais, quod superioribus ad te litteris de Hectore scripsi, petisque et unde id nomen ductum sit, et quomodo, apertius explicari, et simul admirari videris, si id primaevum non sit, sed postea ab eventu quodam illi viro tributum, ut apud nos Torquati, et Cincinnati, et Africani. [2] Ego autem exiliter porro jejuneque rescripsisse non inficias eo. Sed accidit hoc pudore quodam, quod ad te hominem ea aetate auctoritateque hisce de rebus scribens, quas tibi notiores esse puto quam michi, veritus sum, ne obtunderem auris, ineptusque fierem, si prolixius in iis ostendendis fuerim commoratus. [3] Itaque velut admonuisse et tanquam digito monstrasse contentus, non ultra explicui. Sed quoniam illud tibi placere intelligo, parebo equidem voluntati tuae, et quod tunc properatio abstulit, nunc mora resarciet. Primum igitur de Hectore non dubito, quin id sit non proprium nomen, sed a poeta fictum, ut etiam neque de Astyanacte, neque de Hyppolito dubitari potest. [4] Nam, et Astyanactis aliud nomen ab ipso poeta didicimus Scamandrium, et Hyppoliti, quem fabula tradit turbatis distractum equis, nomen hoc ipsum ita designat, ut plusquam manifestum sit ab eventu fabulae fuisse impositum. Nec ulla sane admiratio vel tibi, vel aliis esse debet, si a poetis fingantur nomina, cum res ipsas fingere illis permittamus, quas constat minus esse in potestate nostra secundum naturam, quam nominum ipsorum impositiones, praesertim cum justa sit ratio nuncupandi, ut est in his ipsis, quae supra memoravimus. [5] Hectoris enim filius, quia spe successionis quasi designatus quidam rex opinione hominum habebatur, Astyanax a poeta dictus est, adeoque fictum nomen praevaluit vero, ut Scamandrium quis fuerit, nemo sciat, Astyanacta vero omnes cognoscant. Hyppoliti quoque non dubito si modo quisquam is fuit qui Thesei filius ab equis distractus fertur, aliud nomen fuisse, quod postea ab hoc ficto et adventitio obscuratum deperiit, ut iam nisi Hyppolitum nemo intelligat. Eadem ratio de Hectore est, quod et ipsum a poeta fictum apparet. [6] Dictum aiunt ab eo, quod Urbem tenuerit, quod quia non satis clarum, tibi videri scribis, conandum est lucidius aperire. Tale enim aliquid intelligi volo, quale est Virgilianum illud:

In summa custos Tarpeia Mallius arce
Stabat pro templo et Capitolia celsa tenebat

‘Tenere’ enim hoc in loco tueri est, et defendere. [7] Ab hac itaque significatione tractus est ‘Hector’. Nam εχω graece ‘teneo’ est, inde Hector verbale nomen ex eo illi tributum, quod is solus patriam tenuerit contra Graecorum impetum. Patescere iam arbitror quod ipse intelligam; nil tamen vetat enodatius explicari. A poeta enim ipso si quis in hunc modum quaerat: "Dic michi, Homere, tu apparatus Graecorum tantos facis, ut mare quidem classibus, terra autem incredibili armatorum multitudine compleatur. [8] Conveniunt Reges cuncti, et proceres ad Troiam oppugnandum: obsident illam, atque circumstant. Quis ergo adversus tantam vim tenere Urbem poterat?" In hunc modum si quis roget respondebit Poeta: "filius erat quidam Priami Regis maximus natu. [9] Is Dux, et Imperator incredibili virtute contra tantam Graecorum manum Troiam tenebat, atque eam ob rem, cum haec in poemate describerem, hunc ipsum admirabilem praestantemque virum a tenendo 'Hectorem' nuncupavi, nomenque a re fingendo pertraxi. Quotiens ergo de Hectore scribo, totiens de eo, qui Urbem tenebat sentio. [10] Nec multum admodum interest, ‘Hector’ dicatur, an ‘is qui Urbem tenebat.'" Haec igitur, si poeta dicat, liquidissimum erit, quod requiris. "At enim," inquies, "non solum Hector tenebat Troiam contra tantos hostium conatus, quo pacto enim id posset? sed et alii cum eo perplurimi Troes, et Licii, et Dardani cominus pugnaces." [11] Immo solus, si Homero credis. Quodam enim loco sui carminis cum Hectoris mentionem fecisset, quasi rationem huius afferret, ita subiunxit; ‘solus enim hic servabat urbem, et moenia longi ambitus’, et alio loco inquit: ‘solo stabat Hectore Troia’. Nec tamen in hoc ipso mentitum putes Homerum, quia solum dixerit. Nam Imperator in exercitu, ut Aristoteli placet mentis atque animi instar habet; milites vero quasi membra quaedam ipsius, et instrumenta sunt. [12] Ut igitur neque pes, neque manus, neque dolabra facere opus dicuntur, sed artifex, cuius iussu illa moventur; ita in bello non militum, neque exercitus, sed Ducis Imperatorisque opera sunt. Imperator vero erat Hector. Non ergo superlatione neque iactantia Homerus de Hectore locutus est, quod solum hunc dixerit Troiam servasse, sed philosophia plenus Divina quadam intelligentiae vi ex arcano veritatis ista deprompsit, laudes in re militari ac res bello gestas Imperatori et Duci, hoc est rationi, et providentiae totas ascribens. Vale.

Introduction
Leonardo Bruni (1370-1444), from Florence, the foremost humanist of the early Italian renaissance, was the student of Coluccio Salutati, whom he writes to in this letter. He is known as a historian, papal secretary, translator of Greek and Latin works, and biographer of Cicero, Dante, and
Petrarch. He knew Greek well enough not just to translate, but to write a work about the government of Florence in Greek.

Salutati (1331-1406) was chancellor of Florence, but more importantly a great teacher and an active humanist. He brought Manuel Chrysoloras to Florence to teach Greek, the first Greek teacher in Western Europe for centuries: Bruni was one of Chrysoloras' students. Salutati also rediscovered Cicero's Epistulae ad Familiares, among many other cultural activities.

This letter concerns the derivation and function of names in Homer, an important question. Bruni's Greek is in evidence, and his theories are of great interest. Unfortunately, at the time no real knowledge of comparative linguistics was available (it was developed from the late 1700's on). And yet, in spite of that, Bruni is correct in his conjectures. Interestingly, he follows Plato in them (see §11), although he is either unaware or does not acknowledge that. The basic theory is that Homer invented new names for characters that came to replace their given names. We might call them charactonyms.

Brief identifications
Leonardo Bruni, 1370 - 1444. Involved in Italian political affairs, Bruni also wrote: a history of the Florentine people in twelve books, a biography of Cicero, many translations of Greek texts into Latin (including Aristotle and Procopius), and, pertinent to this letter, the Orationes Homeri, translations of three speeches from the Iliad.
Coluccio Salutati, 1331 - 1406. Tuscan, key to Florentine Renaissance. (Re)discovered Cicero’s letters ad Familiares, among other manuscripts.
Astyanax/Scamandrius: son of Hector and Andromache, a child in the Iliad
Hector: son of Priam; the great Trojan hero of the Iliad.
Hyppolitus: son of Theseus; treated, e.g., in Euripides’ Hippolytus and Seneca’s Phaedra; this letter references the end of his life and how it affected his name.
Homer: creator of the Iliad.
Priam: king of Troy, father of Hector.

Bibliography
Mehus, Laurentio (ed.)., Leonardi Bruni Arretini Epistolarum Libri VIII, pars prima, Florentiae, 1741.
Thiermann, Peter, Die Orationes Homeri des Leonardo Bruni Aretino, Brill Academic Pub., 1993.
Woodcock, E.C., A New Latin Syntax, Bristol Classics Press ed., 1985 (orig. 1959)

Text:
From Mehus' edition. Quotation marks have been added and a few commas changed. The numbering of sections given here is original to this document and hence should not be used to cite the letter.

Commentary
In Mehus' edition, all of Bruni's letters have a short title summarizing what question the letter addresses. This one's title is Quo consilio Homerus nomina rebus personisque tribuerit ("In what manner Homer gave names to people and things"). It is in the subjunctive, as are all of the title summaries, presumably as an indirect question dependent on an understood verb.

1. Non satis conspicuum tibi factum ais, quod superioribus ad te litteris de Hectore scripsi, petisque et unde id nomen ductum sit, et quomodo, apertius explicari, et simul admirari videris, si id primaevum non sit, sed postea ab eventu quodam illi viro tributum, ut apud nos Torquati, et Cincinnati, et Africani.

1.
Sentence analysis:
petisque ... et ... et ... : the objects of petis are et unde ... et quomodo, hence et ... et ... means ‘both ... and ...’.  | Torquati, Cincinnati, Africani: likely genitive with understood nomina tributa sunt or the like, but possibly nominatives. Titus Manlius received the agnomen ‘Torquatus’ meaning ‘adorned with a necklace’ in 361 BC, after defeating a Gaul in single combat and placing the latter’s "torc" necklace onto his own neck. The name passed on to his descendants. ‘Cincinnatus’, meaning ‘curled’ with reference to hair, was the cognomen of L. Quinctius who in 458 BC went from the plough to serve as dictator to defeat rival tribes. ‘Africanus’ was the agnomen given to Scipio after defeating Hannibal in the Second Punic War in 202.

2. Ego autem exiliter porro jejuneque rescripsisse non inficias eo. Sed accidit hoc pudore quodam, quod ad te hominem ea aetate auctoritateque hisce de rebus scribens, quas tibi notiores esse puto quam michi, veritus sum, ne obtunderem auris, ineptusque fierem, si prolixius in iis ostendendis fuerim commoratus.

2.
Sentence analysis:
non inficias eo: inficias ire = "deny": inficias, an acc. pl., is only ever used this way. | hisce: -ce can be added to hic, haec, hoc and some other words. It is a demonstrative particle that adds emphasis somehow: usually it need not be translated. | michi: common later variant of mihi. | pudore quodam: abl. of cause. | ea aetate auctoritateque: ablatives of description. | si…fuerim commoratus: this unusual form (past participle + fuerim) may be a periphrastic pluperfect subjunctive in secondary sequence (outside of a fear clause, Bruni's thought would have been "I would be annoying, if I had tarried too long in demonstrating these things"): occasionally, the perfect participle + fuerim is found instead of the normal perfect participle + essem for the pluperfect subjunctive (see Woodcock, §100n.1.b).  

3. Itaque velut admonuisse et tanquam digito monstrasse contentus, non ultra explicui. Sed quoniam illud tibi placere intelligo, parebo equidem voluntati tuae, et quod tunc properatio abstulit, nunc mora resarciet. Primum igitur de Hectore non dubito, quin id sit non proprium nomen, sed a poeta fictum, ut etiam neque de Astyanacte, neque de Hyppolito dubitari potest.

3. velut contentus: velut "as if" in a comparison clause (a verb such as essem is omitted): more often velut si, but sometimes just velut. | admonuisse…monstrasse: epexegetical infinitives dependent on contentus. | voluntati tuae: pareo governs the dative. | quin: when used after negated doubting expressions (non dubito), quin means ‘that,' 'but that' and takes subjunctive (sit and fictum (sc. sit)). | Astyanax…Hyppolitus: Astyanax means ‘city-lord,' while Hyppolitus is usually explained in modern times as 'horse-releaser,' but, given the next sentence, Bruni clearly thinks it means 'horse-loosed' or 'horse-destroyed' (Greek λύω can mean "loosen," but also "destroy": note that Greek Ἱππόλυτος is more accurately transliterated as 'Hippolytos').

4. Nam, et Astyanactis aliud nomen ab ipso poeta didicimus Scamandrium, et Hyppoliti, quem fabula tradit turbatis distractum equis, nomen hoc ipsum ita designat, ut plusquam manifestum sit ab eventu fabulae fuisse impositum. Nec ulla sane admiratio vel tibi, vel aliis esse debet, si a poetis fingantur nomina, cum res ipsas fingere illis permittamus, quas constat minus esse in potestate nostra secundum naturam, quam nominum ipsorum impositiones, praesertim cum justa sit ratio nuncupandi, ut est in his ipsis, quae supra memoravimus.

4. Hyppoliti: genitive of specification/content/definition with nomen hoc ipsum, as in "the title of king,"  separated by the relative clause. | tradit: introduces ind. statement quem ... turbatis distractum (sc. esse) equis. | ita…ut: introduces result clause: ‘in such a manner…that.' | manifestum sit: pres. subj in result clause. manifestum introduces ind. statement, whose subject is understood to be the nomen which was impositum. | si…fingantur: pres. subj. protasis of future less vivid cond., although the logical relation to the apodosis is not tight (if names are made up, it does not really follow that one should not be amazed: rather, it seems to be the case that one should not be amazed at the fact that names are made up). | cum: causal cum takes subj. permittamus. | constat: introduces ind. statement. | minus: comparative with  the following ‘quam’. | cum iusta sit: not merely temporal, but descriptive or characterizing ‘cum.'  cf. Woodcock § 234. | ut est: ut "as" introduces an adverbial clause here, referring to justa: supply ratio as subject of est. | quae supra memoravimus: i.e. the names Hyppolitus and Astyanax.

5. Hectoris enim filius, quia spe successionis quasi designatus quidam rex opinione hominum habebatur, Astyanax a poeta dictus est, adeoque fictum nomen praevaluit vero, ut Scamandrium quis fuerit, nemo sciat, Astyanacta vero omnes cognoscant. Hyppoliti quoque non dubito si modo quisquam is fuit qui Thesei filius ab equis distractus fertur, aliud nomen fuisse, quod postea ab hoc ficto et adventitio obscuratum deperiit, ut iam nisi Hyppolitum nemo intelligat. Eadem ratio de Hectore est, quod et ipsum a poeta fictum apparet.

5. quasi designatus quidam rex: predicate nominative phrase dependent on habebatur. quasi ... quidam must mean something like "some kind of." adeoque…ut: adeo prepares for the result clause sciat. |  vero: sc. nomini. praevaluit takes dat. The next vero, however, is adverbial. | ut Scamandrium quis fuerit, nemo sciat: Scamandrium is proleptic, like "lilies" in "consider the lilies of the field, how they grow." | sciat…cognoscant: pres. subjs. in result clauses. | fuerit: perf. subj. in indirect question. | Hyppoliti: gen. with aliquid nomen, although separated by 15 words: cf. Hyppoliti, quem ..., nomen hoc ipsum in §4. | non dubito: introduces ind. statement acc. + infinitive aliud nomen fuisse. | ut iam…intellegat: result clause. iam "now." | quod et ipsum a poeta fictum apparet: quod ipsum is neuter modifying an understood nomen. apparet introduces ind. statement (acc. quod ipsum + infinitive fictum (sc. esse)).
 
6. Dictum aiunt ab eo, quod Urbem tenuerit, quod quia non satis clarum, tibi videri scribis, conandum est lucidius aperire. Tale enim aliquid intelligi volo, quale est Virgilianum illud:

In summa custos Tarpeia Mallius arce
Stabat pro templo et Capitolia celsa tenebat

‘Tenere’ enim hoc in loco tueri est, et defendere.

6.
Sentence Analysis:
 aiunt: introduces ind. statement infinitive dictum (sc. esse) + understood acc. subj. (Hectorem). | quod Urbem tenuerit: subjunctive is normal in a quod clause giving the reason of someone other than the author (A&G §540 and §592.3): Bruni is reporting what others have said. | conandum est: impersonal periphrastic, "one must try." | In summa…tenebat: The verses are Virgil’s Aeneid VIII 652-653. | Tenere enim…est: est here means 'is equivalent to.'

7. Ab hac itaque significatione tractus est ‘Hector’. Nam εχω graece ‘teneo’ est, inde Hector verbale nomen ex eo illi tributum, quod is solus patriam tenuerit contra Graecorum impetum. Patescere iam arbitror quod ipse intelligam; nil tamen vetat enodatius explicari. A poeta enim ipso si quis in hunc modum quaerat: "Dic michi, Homere, tu apparatus Graecorum tantos facis, ut mare quidem classibus, terra autem incredibili armatorum multitudine compleatur.

7. εχω: Greek for "have," "hold": equivalent to ‘teneo’ in Latin. | Hector verbale nomen: verbale nomen is in apposition to Hector, the subject of tributum (sc. est): Bruni's claim is that Hector comes from the verb (hence verbale nomen) εχω because /Hec-/ sounds like the Greek verb for εχω, which has an appropriate meaning (viz. teneo). Bruni does not point out further evidence in favor of his claims: εχω had the rough breathing /h/ sound before the dissimilation of aspirates - the future form maintained a rough breathing; and the ending of Hector is plausibly an agent suffix, meaning "doer" of the action preceding it. ‘Hector’ then means ‘possessor, holder, keeper, guardian.’ Etymologizing before comparative linguistics (i.e. the 19th century discovery of Indo-European languages' relations) lacks rigor and is ad hoc but occasionally correct. | ex eo…quod: ‘ex eo’ anticipates the explanation begun by quod (see ab eo, quod ... in §6). | tenuerit: perf. subj.: Bruni is again reporting the reason given by others. | quod ipse intelligam: pres. subj. in a subordinate clause in indirect statement (namely patescere, introduced by arbitror). | si…quaerat: pres. subj., protasis of a future less viv. cond. sentence: note that the protasis is repeated and that the apodosis does not come until much later, after the direct quotation Dic michi ... poterat? | ut…compleatur: result clause, prepared for by tantos.

8.  Conveniunt Reges cuncti, et proceres ad Troiam oppugnandum: obsident illam, atque circumstant. Quis ergo adversus tantam vim tenere Urbem poterat?" In hunc modum si quis roget respondebit Poeta: "filius erat quidam Priami Regis maximus natu.

8. ad Troiam oppugnandum: gerund of purpose. | si quis roget: repetition of protasis from before the direct quotation: again pres. subj. in fut. less vivid protasis (the apodosis is simple future indicative, which makes this a mixed condition). | natu: abl. of description.

9. Is Dux, et Imperator incredibili virtute contra tantam Graecorum manum Troiam tenebat, atque eam ob rem, cum haec in poemate describerem, hunc ipsum admirabilem praestantemque virum a tenendo 'Hectorem' nuncupavi, nomenque a re fingendo pertraxi. Quotiens ergo de Hectore scribo, totiens de eo, qui Urbem tenebat sentio.

9. incredibili virtute: abl. of description. | cum…describerem: imperfect subj. in secondary sequence with generalizing ‘cum’, ‘whenever.’ | a tenendo: identifies the meaning of the derivation of ‘Hector.’ | a re fingendo: fingendo is a gerund and ablative of means, "by shaping." a re "from reality" modifies pertraxi.  | quotiens…totiens: correlative adverbs "as often as..., so often ...."

10. [10] Nec multum admodum interest, ‘Hector’ dicatur, an ‘is qui Urbem tenebat.'" Haec igitur, si poeta dicat, liquidissimum erit, quod requiris. "At enim," inquies, "non solum Hector tenebat Troiam contra tantos hostium conatus, quo pacto enim id posset? sed et alii cum eo perplurimi Troes, et Licii, et Dardani cominus pugnaces."

10. multum admodum: adverbial "a great deal," "a whole lot" modifying interest. multum appears together with admodum rarely in Classical Latin and with some frequency in neo-Latin, but its counterpart nihil admodum "not much at all" occurs with some frequency in Classical Latin. | ‘Hector’ dicatur, an ... : pres. subj. in indirect question: an introduces an 'alternative' indirect question (whose verb is dicatur supplied from previous clause). Although interest is called "impersonal," its subject is the two indirect questions: "Whether ... or ... does not make a great deal of difference." | si poeta dicat: pres. subj. in future less vivid protasis of mixed conditional sentence of the same form as that of §8. | liquidissimum erit, quod requiris: as often, quod lacks an explicit antecedent: had it been expressed, it would have been id, the subject of erit. Compare English "What you want will become clear." | At enim ... enim: at enim is an adversative "but" that is almost always used to introduce an objection that will be rejected (A&G §324d): enim alone often means ‘for.' | quo pacto: this ossified phrase means ‘how’. Literally, ‘with what having been established?’ | quo pacto enim id posset?: this question verges on a parenthesis. | posset: past potential imp. subj. possum occurs mostly with a complementary infinitive, but it does occur with a neuter pronoun: probably some fully general infinitive is to be understood, such as facere, agere, or esse.

11. Immo solus, si Homero credis. Quodam enim loco sui carminis cum Hectoris mentionem fecisset, quasi rationem huius afferret, ita subiunxit; ‘solus enim hic servabat urbem, et moenia longi ambitus’, et alio loco inquit: ‘solo stabat Hectore Troia’. Nec tamen in hoc ipso mentitum putes Homerum, quia 'solum' dixerit. Nam Imperator in exercitu, ut Aristoteli placet, mentis atque animi instar habet; milites vero quasi membra quaedam ipsius et instrumenta sunt.

11. Immo solus: sc. tenebat Troiam or the like. immo is used to reject and correct something preceding, like "nay." | cum…fecisset: narrative/circumstantial cum takes subjunctive: secondary sequence. | afferret: imp. subj., pres. contrary to fact, ‘as if he were.’ | solus…ambitus: referring to Il. 6, 403 οἶος γὰρ ἐρύετο Ἴλιον Ἕκτωρ "for Hector alone saved Ilium" and Il. 22, 507 οἶος γάρ σφιν ἔρυσο πύλας καὶ τείχεα μακρά "for you alone saved their gates and long walls." And yet, Plato Cratylus 392e1, which purports to quote the Iliad, has οἶος γάρ σφιν ἔρυτο πόλιν καὶ τείχεα μακρά "for he alone saved their city and long walls," which corresponds word-for-word literally to Bruni's Latin better than either Iliad passage. | longi ambitus: gen. of description, and a somewhat fixed phrase. | putes: introduces ind. statement. | dixerit: quia + perf. subj. may be taken as a clause of alleged cause (virtual oratio obliqua), or as indicating rejected cause or reason. | Aristoteli: this refers to Aristotle, but to which writing specifically remains unclear: Bruni, however, translated Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, and Economics. | mentis atque animi instar habet: instar habet "has the place of," "has the worth of" + gen. mentis atque animi. | ipsius: the Imperator.

12. [12] Ut igitur neque pes, neque manus, neque dolabra facere opus dicuntur, sed artifex, cuius iussu illa moventur; ita in bello non militum, neque exercitus, sed Ducis Imperatorisque opera sunt. Imperator vero erat Hector. Non ergo superlatione neque iactantia Homerus de Hectore locutus est, quod solum hunc dixerit Troiam servasse, sed philosophia plenus Divina quadam intelligentiae vi ex arcano veritatis ista deprompsit, laudes in re militari ac res bello gestas Imperatori et Duci, hoc est rationi, et providentiae totas ascribens. Vale.

12. ut…ita: ‘as…so’ | iussu: ablative of means or cause. | non..quod..dixerit: quod + subjunctive indicating rejected cause or reason. dixerit introduces indirect statement (solum hunc Troiam servasse). | plenus: this adjective takes the ablative philosophia Divina. | quadam intelligentiae vi: abl. of means. | Duci..rationi…providentiae: these three datives are the indirect objects of the participle ascribens. | totas: modifies a further understood laudes ac res gestas.

Vocabulary
accido, accidere, accidi, accisum, happen
adeo, to this extent
admirabilis, -e, outstanding, marvelous
admiratio, -onis, f., wonder
admiror, admirari, admiratus sum, wonder, be amazed
admodum, adv., very, greatly
admoneo, admonere, admonui, admonitum, admonish, advise
adventitius, -a, -um, adj., foreign, additional, from another source
adversus (+ acc.), against, in the face of
aetas, -atis, f., age
affero, afferre, attuli, allatum, bring (to), bring forth; assert
aio, say
ambitus, us, m., circuit, circle, periphery
animus, -i, m., soul
aperio, aperire, aperui, apertum, open, reveal
apertius, more openly, more clearly
apparatus, us, m., preparation
appareo, apparere, apparui, apparitum, appear, be evident
apud (+ acc.), among
arbitror (1), intend to, decide to, judge
arcanus, -a, -um, hidden, secret
armatus, -a, -um, armed
artifex, artificis, m., artist, maker, craftsman
arx, arcis, f., citadel, stronghold
ascribo, ascribere, ascripsi, ascriptum, ascribe
auctoritas, -atis, f., authority
aufero, auferre, abstulit, ablatum, carry away, remove
autem, but
auris, auris,  f., ear
bellum, -i, n., war
carmen, -inis, n., song, poem
celsus, -a, -um, lofty, high, elevated
circumsto, circumstare, circumsteti, surround
clarus, -a, -um, clear, famous, noble
classis, -is, f., fleet
cognosco, cognoscere, cognovi, cognitum, recognize
com(m)inus, in close combat, hand to hand
commoror, commorari, commoratus sum, delay, tarry
compleo, complere, complevi, completum, fill
conatus, us, m., attempt
conor, conari, conatus sum, attempt, try
consilium, i, n., counsil, plan, advice
conspicuus, -a, -um, visible, striking, conspicuous
consto, constare, consteti, constatum, it is agreed or clear
contentus, -a, -um, content, satisfied
contra, against
convenio, convenire, conveni, conventum, come together, gather
credo, credere, credidi, creditum, believe, give credit to (+dat.)
cunctus, -a, -um, all, together
custos, -odis, m. (or f.), guardian
debeo, debere, debui, debitum, should, ought
defendo, defendere, defendi, defensum, defend
depereo, deperire, deperivi, deperitum, perish, be ruined
depromo, depromere, deprompsi, depromptum, bring, produce
describo, describere, descripsi, descriptum, describe
designo (1), designate
dico, dicere, dixi, dictus, say
disco, discere, didici, disciturum, learn
digitus, -i, m., digit, finger
distraho, distrahere, distraxi, distractum, pull apart, drag apart, draw asunder
dolabra, -ae, f., pick-axe
dubito (1), doubt; hesitate
duco, ducere, duxi, ductum, derive
dux, ducis, m., leader, general, duke
enodatius, more clearly, more plainly (literally un-knottedly)
eo, ire, ii, itum, go
equidem = ego + quidem
equus, -i, m., horse
ergo, therefore
eventus, us, m., event
exercitus, us, m., army
exiliter, meagerly, feebly
explico (1), unravel, explain
fabula, -ae, f., play, story
facio, facere, feci, factum, do, make
fero, ferre, tuli, latus, bear, carry, bring
fingo, fingere, finxi, fictum, shape, adorn, make up
fio, fieri, factus sum, become
filius, -i, m., son
graece, in Greek
habeo, habere, habui, habitus, consider, deem
homo, hominis, m., man
hostis, hostis, m./f., enemy
iactantia, ae, f., boasting, ostentation
igitur, thus
immo, nay, indeed
imperator, -oris, m., general, leader
impetus, -us, m., attack
impono, imponere, imposui, impositum, establish, set, fix
impositio, -onis, f., application (of a name to something)
incredibilis, -e, incredible
inde, from there, thence
ineptus, -a, -um, unsuitable, tasteless, improper
inficiae (also infitiae): denial (used only in the acc. pl. inficias with ire to mean "deny")
inficias ire, to deny.
inquam, say [defective verb: inquies = 2nd person future]
instar, n., (does not decline), image, likeness, resemblance
instrumentum, -i, n., instrument, tool
intellego, intellegere, intellexi, intellectum, (also intelligo, etc.), understand
interest, it makes a difference, it matters
iussus, -us, m., command [abl. iussu]
jejune, blandly, emptily
justus, -a, -um,  just, upright
laus, laudis, f., praise
locus, -i, m., place
loquor, loqui, locutus est, speak, talk, say, tell
liquidissimus, -a, -um, most clear
littera, -ae, f., letter (of the alphabet); plural letter (that one sends to someone)
lucidius, more lucidly
manifestus, -a, -um, apparent, obvious, open
manus, -us, f., band (of soldiers), hand [used in both contexts in letter]
mare, maris, n., sea
maximus, -a, -um, greatest; oldest (of birth order of children)
membrum, -i, n., body part, limb
memoro (1), tell, recount
mens, mentis, f., mind
mentio, -onis, f., mention
mentior, mentiri, mentitus sum, lie, deceive
miles, militis, m., soldier
minus, adv., less
modo, adv., only
modus, -i, m., way, manner
moenia, moenium, n. pl., city walls
monstro (1), show, demonstrate
mora, -ae, f., delay
moveo, movere, movi, motus, move
multitudo, -inis, f., multitude
natura, -ae, f., nature
natus, us, m., birth
nomen, nominis, n., name
notus, -a, -um, known
nuncupo (1), name
notior, notius, more known, more familiar
obscuro (1), darken, suppress
obsideo, obsidere, obsedi, obsessum, besiege
obtundo, obtundere, obtudi, obtusum, beat, deafen (obtundo aures, tease, annoy)
opinio, -onis, f., expectation
oppugno (1), sack, besiege
opus, operis, n., work, task
ostendo, ostendere, ostendi, ostentum, show
pango, pangere, pepigi, pactum, fix, fasten
pareo, parere, parui, paritum, to be obedient to
patesco, patescere, patui, be opened, be evident; become evident
patria, -ae, f., fatherland
permitto, permittere, permisi, permissum, allow, grant, concede
perplurimi, -ae, -a, very many
persona, -ae, f., character; person
pertraho, pertrahere, pertraxi, pertractum, carry through, draw out
pes, pedis, m., foot
peto, petere, petivi, petitus, seek, ask
placeo, placere, placui, placitus, be pleasing
plenus,-a, -um, full (of) (+ abl.)
plusquam: more than
poema, -atis, n., poem
poeta, -ae, m., poet
porro, further
possum, posse, potui, be able
postea, afterwards
potestas, -atis, f., power
praesertim, especially
praestans,-antis, outstanding, preeminent
praevaleo, praevalere, praevalui, prevail, be foremost in strength
primaevus, -a, -um, in the first period of life, young
primum, adv., first
procer, proceris, noble, chief
prolixius, more verbosely
properatio, -onis, f., hurrying, haste
proprius, -a, -um, special, particular, not in common with others
providentia, -ae, f., providence, foresight
pudor, pudoris, m., shame, humility
pugnax, pugnacis, fighter
puto (1), consider, think
quaero, quaerere, quaesivi, quaesitus, ask
quin, but that, that
quomodo, how
quoniam, since
quotiens, however many times
ratio, -onis, f., reason, ground, explanation
requiro, requirere,  requisivi, requisitus, ask, demand, need
res, rei, f., thing, affair
resarcio, resarcire, resartum, patch, repair, restore
rescribo, rescribere, rescripsi, rescriptus, write back
respondeo, respondere, respondi, responsum, respond
rex, regis, m., king
rogo (1), ask
sane, indeed, surely
satis, adv., enough, sufficiently
scio, scire, scivi, scitum, know
scribo, scribere, scripsi, scriptum, write
secundum (+ acc.), according to
sentio, sentire, sensi, sensus, feel, perceive
servo (1), save, protect
significatio: signification, meaning
simul, at the same time
solus, -a, -um, alone
spes, spei, f., hope
sto, stare, steti, statum, stand
subiungo:, subiungere, subiunxi, subiunctum, subjoin
successio, -onis, f., succession
summus, -a, -um, highest, topmost
superior, superioris, previous
superlatio, -onis, f., exaggeration
supra, above
tanquam, as, as if, as it were
templum, -i, n., temple
teneo, tenere, tenui, tentum, have, hold
terra, -ae, f., land
totiens, so many times (that many times)
trado, tradere, tradidi, traditum, relate, hand down
traho, trahere, traxi, tractum, draw, drag
tribuo, tribuere, tribui, tributus, bestow
tueor, tueri, tuitus sum, guard, defend, protect
tunc, then
turbatus, -a, -um, stirred up, riled up
ultra, further, beyond
unde, whence
urbs, urbis, f., city
velut, just as, as if
verbalis, verbale, verbal (coming from a verb)
vereor, vereri, veritus sum, fear
veritas, -atis, f., truth
veto, vetare, vetui, vetitum, prevent, prohibit
video, videre, vidi, visum, see
vir, viri, m., man
virtus, virtutis, f., strength, virtue
vis, vis, f., power, force
volo, velle, volui, want
voluntas, -atis, f., will, desire, decision