28-33 Fast forward about 20 years to near the end of the first century BCE. Appian does not ignore the war against Jugurtha, or the battles that Marius and others will then fight against Germanic invaders (Cimbri and Teutones) to defend Italy, but narrates those conflicts in other parts of his work. In those other parts (not included in the translation of the civil wars) are only foreign wars, e.g., against Carthaginians, Syrians, or others. In sections 28-33 Marius is back at Rome and politically allied with Saturninus and Glaucia, who apparently use excessive force to gain their political ends. One of the benefits for Marius is the exile of Metellus (Metellus Numidicus), his old commander in Africa. Glaucia and Saturninus were also hostile to Metellus because when he was censor he had tried to have them kicked out of the senate. In section 28 we read of the murder of Nonius, a candidate for tribune of the people; evidently Nonius was too likely to support the senators' point of view and this seemed reason enough to eliminate him. More shocking, however, is the murder of Gaius Memmius, who had been tribune of the people in 111 and figured prominently in Sallust's history of the war against Jugurtha, not as a combatant but as a political figure in Rome who did his best to expose the corruption of many senatorial leaders. In the riots and confusion following this murder, Marius is forced, as consul, to arrest his allies Saturninus and Glaucia, who are then killed by a crowd of furious Roman citizens. Metellus Numidicus returns from exile; you will meet here also his son, called Metellus Pius, who will become a prominent politician at Rome and a supporter of Sulla.
34-54 The account of the Social War, the name we give to the rebellion of the Italian allies against the Romans. What sets them off, after so many previous disappointments, is the murder of Marcus Livius Drusus, who as tribune of the people in 91 BCE had tried to get citizenship for the Italians. The individual battles in this section are not important, merely the fact that there were battles and sieges, and how widespread they were. Behavior of individuals can be intriguing too, e.g., what Vidacilius does in section 48. Romans who gained or regained prominence as a result of his war are: Marius, Sulla, Metellus Pius, Pompeius Strabo (father of Pompey the Great). Most prominent of the Italian rebels are the Samnites and Marsi (some authors call this the Marsic War). The Romans finally bring things to a sort of end by giving the Italians citizenship, but a citizenship with a somewhat lesser voting right (see section 49 and editor's notes). It is this restricted citizenship for Italians that will drive some of the next round of civil disturbances at Rome.
55-64 Marius and Sulla at odds over who will lead the Roman army against Mithradates of Pontus. The senate had voted the command to Sulla but Marius allied himself with one of the tribunes of the people, Publius Sulpicius, who was anxious to get fair citizenship status for the Italians. Marius promised his support for this if Sulpicius would get him the army command. There was much civic unrest in Rome and stories of exactly what happened vary (Plutarch's versions are different from Appian's). Everyone agrees that Sulla settled the matter by marching his army on Rome, driving out his political enemies (Marius escaped to Africa but Sulpicius, still a tribune in office, was killed), arranging the internal machinery of the Roman state in a way that he thought better, and then leaving for the east and the war against Mithradates. (See next paragraph for more details on persons involved.)
63-64 There are two commanders called Pompeius. One is Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo (father of Pompey the Great), who had been consul in 89 and still held command of the part of the Roman army that was supposed to stay in Italy to take care of the remnants of the Social War. Sulla sent Quintus Pompeius Rufus, the other consul of 88, to take over command from Pompeius Strabo; the latter's soldiers kill Pompeius Rufus and Pompeius Strabo retains command of them, although he does not live long after this but dies of a disease or a lightning strike (no historical consensus).
64-75 More problems in Rome and Italy. Lucius Cornelius Cinna, one of the consuls for 87, quarreled with his colleague Gnaeus Octavius over the status of the new Italian citizens. In brief (if that is possible), Octavius drove Cinna out of Rome, had him declared an enemy, and Lucius Cornelius Merula was made consul in his place. Cinna, aided by a number of people, the most prominent of whom were Marius (now returned from Africa) and Quintus Sertorius (an enemy of Sulla and interesting person in his own right; there is a biography of him by Plutarch), collected an army and marched on Rome. Metellus Pius did not relieve Rome from the threat of Cinna and his allies, and retreated to North Africa. Cinna and his allies regained control and killed many of their enemies, including Octavius the consul, and prosecuted others, including Merula who had been made consul instead of Cinna. So with murders, suicides, and unfair trials, Rome was a scene of misery and bloodshed. The list of prominent victims begins in chapter 72. Trials begin in chapter 74, and include the trial of Quintus Lutatius Catulus, who had been Marius' colleague in the consulship of 102 (when they defeated the Germans). Marius was elected to his seventh consulship, for 86, but died very early in the year.
76-83 Appian does not write a history of events in Italy from 86-84, but takes up the tale with Sulla's return after his arrangement with Mithradates. Cinna is killed by mutinous soldiers early in 84, leaving his consular colleague Gnaeus Papirius Carbo in charge. Many Romans decide to support Sulla against Carbo and his political allies (often called the Marians, because Marius' young son Gaius Marius joins the story). Sulla's supporters include Metellus Pius, Lucius Licinius Lucullus (who had been with him in the war against Mithradates), Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Great), Marcus Licinius Crassus. Sulla's opponents include Sertorius, who eventually takes over the Roman parts of Spain and causes trouble for years to come (there is a biography of him by Plutarch), Carbo, Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus (or Asiagenus, the name appears both ways), Gaius Norbanus, Lucius Junius Brutus Damasippus, Marcus Perperna, and the younger Marius.
84-96 From the winter of 84/83 to the battle of the Colline Gate, 1 November 82, there are a number of battles which are described in these chapters. Most of Sulla's enemies end up dead, whether killed in battle or hunted down afterwards (e.g., by Pompey, on Sulla's orders), although a couple of them go into exile (e.g., Scipio, perhaps) or escape (e.g., Perperna, who gets to Spain). Sulla also uses his army to kill a large number of Italians who seemed intransigent to him, especially the Samnites. In section 95 Sulla posts proscription lists, a first for Rome.
97-104 Sulla's dictatorship. Although Appian says at the beginning of chapter 97 that Sulla sent Metellus Pius to Spain to fight Sertorius, Metellus Pius stays in Rome and is Sulla's colleague in the consulship for the year 80 (see section 103), and goes to Spain afterwards. Appian describes Sulla's dictatorship, including reforms of administration, but overall regards Sulla as a tyrant or king, at least until he resigns all public office in 79 BCE.
105-107 Another conflict arises because the consuls of 78, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus and Quintus Lutatius Catulus, are enemies; not only that, but Lepidus stirs up trouble in Etruria, but not until after the death and funeral of Sulla. There is a brief conflict in the years 78-77, during which Lepidus marches on Rome and is defeated by Catulus at the Milvian Bridge outside of the city; Lepidus escapes to Sardinia and dies there.
108-115 Appian finishes the narrative of civil strife relating to Sulla by turning his attention to Spain, held by Sertorius, now reinforced by Perperna and the men with him. Metellus had already been in Spain for some time without success; now (77 BCE) he is joined by Pompey, who had been a commander in the conflict with Lepidus and who had refused to lay down his command and suggested strongly that the senate should send him to Spain, so the senate did (Appian does not tell these details about how Pompey obtained the command). Four or five years pass with Sertorius holding out against Metellus and Pompey and finally in 72 BCE Perperna and some associates murder Sertorius (chapter 113). Pompey soon ends the conflict and disposes of Perperna.
116-121 The slave rebellion led by Spartacus, which Crassus finally puts an end to. Pompey arrives in time to round up a few remnants of Spartacus' army and claims to have finished the war; Crassus is not happy to hear this. Nevertheless, Crassus and Pompey agree to reconcile and they are elected consuls for the year 70. Appian's account of the Spartacus rebellion is one of the few that we possess; there is also a very detailed narrative in Plutarch's life of Crassus, chapters 8-11.
2-7 The conspiracy of Catilina, also told by Sallust in more detail; introduction of Cicero and Cato, among other characters. Possible involvement of Caesar in the conspiracy, although he emerges unharmed.
8 Caesar goes to Spain as praetor, but has debt problems to deal with first.
9-14 Original formation of the political alliance between Pompey, who was having political problems at home, Caesar, and Crassus (the so-called first triumvirate, which Varro called the three-headed monster [henceforth THM]). Caesar's daughter Julia marries Pompey. The most active opponents are Bibulus, Caesar's colleague as consul, and Cato. Clodius involves himself in a scandal and during his trial Cicero earns his enmity and brings danger on himself because of Clodius and because he does not support the THM.
15-25 These chapters cover nearly 10 years, during which Caesar has an extended command in Gaul and conquers large parts of western Europe, Cicero is exiled and then recalled, Pompey and Crassus are consuls together again in 55 BCE, Crassus gets a military command against Parthia and dies during his expedition, Julia dies, Milo kills his enemy Clodius and goes into exile, Pompey is called in to restore order and he and Caesar become estranged. It is clear that although political strife at Rome is worse because of the THM (note what happens to Ahenobarbus when he tries to be elected one of the consuls for 55), things become even worse after Crassus departs.
26-33 Political maneuvering of both sides, with various people in Rome trying to reduce or destroy Caesar's influence and Pompey not objecting.
34-43 Caesar's march down Italy and entrance into Rome, departure of Pompey and his supporters for Greece, Caesar goes to Spain: essentially the same narrative as in Caesar BC book 1. It is not impossible that the oddly lengthy excursus over Epidamnus and Dyrrachium in chapter 39 owes something to Thucydides; readers may remember that it was a quarrel over Epidamnus, a colony with ties to both Corcyra and Corinth, that was the beginning of the evils for the Peloponnesian war.
44-45 Curio's struggle and death in North Africa; see Caesar BC book 2. Pollio (C. Asinius Pollio) is worth noting; he does not appear in Caesar's account.
46-58 Caesar and his forces manage finally to cross the Adriatic where they will be closer to Pompey's army.
59-62 Pompey is established at Dyrrachium; he and Caesar set up opposing forts and Caesar tries to build a wall to hem in his opponent, who has control of the sea. Caesar's army has little food. After a defeat (also narrated in Caesar BC 3.69), Caesar takes his army away.
63-64 Caesar's army recovers from misbehavior; they go to Thessaly and sack the city of Gomphi in western Thessaly for failing to admit them.
65 Pompey's council: Afranius' excellent advice, not mentioned by Caesar, is ignored, and Pompey and his army follow Caesar to Thessaly.
66-69 Before Pharsalus. Appian's account of Pompey's ideas and the difficulties he had dealing with a bunch of senators can be reconciled with Caesar's narrative, although details are not the same. There is much information about divine direction of events, and this will continue.
70-71 The catalogue of forces on both sides, often placed by Greek historians right before the actual fighting.
72-74 Speeches before battle, usual for great battles.
75-82 Maneuvers before battle and names of the prominent commanders on each side: under Pompey are Metellus Scipio, Domitius Ahenobarbus, and Lentulus Crus; under Caesar are Publius Sulla (the dictator's nephew), M. Antonius, and Domitius Calvinus. (For more identification of these people, see Notes to Caesar.) Account of the battle in some detail. Appian notes the special command Caesar gives his infantry for a tactic to use against Pompey's cavalry. In section 82 Appian cites Pollio's testimony.
83-86 Pompey flees, not to where he has military forces already, but on the advice of his friends goes to Egypt, where he is murdered. Appian's epitaph is worthy of Tacitus and perhaps owes something to that historian.
87-90 Caesar settles with various Greek states (note what he says to the Athenians), goes to Alexandria, punishes Pompey's killers, and after many battles and nearly a year, proceeds to Asia Minor to attack Pharnaces. As he is crossing to Asia, Cassius (who was on Pompey's side) surrenders his fleet for no logical reason.
91 Brief account of a brief battle, the one for which Caesar announced Veni Vidi Vici
92-94 Touring Asia Minor, hears of major problems in Rome, caused by some of his own soldiers, and the escape of Sallust from harm. How he handles this mutiny (note especially the Tenth Legion, his favorite).
95-100 Caesar goes to Africa, wins the battle of Thapsus; Cato suicides. The narrative is similar to that in the African War but brief.
101-102 Caesar celebrates a huge triumph at Rome; note some of the images described.
103-105 In Spain, the final battle of Caesar's civil war, Munda. It is hard to know what to make of the advice that once again Caesar's soldiers were afraid to fight and that Caesar had to go out alone as a target. The heads of Labienus, Cn. Pompeius (the younger), and others.
106-154 Events leading to Caesar's assassination, first announced in section 111, which is followed by more background until Appian described the event in detail in section 117. The remainder of the book tells of the political maneuvers and public declarations of the conspirators, especially Brutus, and counter measures and speeches of M. Antonius. Conspirators who figure most prominently in books 2 and 3 are M. Iunius Brutus (Brutus), C. Cassius Longinus (Cassius), D. Iunius Brutus Albinus (Decimus in Appian, called Decimus Brutus by most modern historians to distinguish him from Marcus Brutus), and C. Trebonius (Trebonius). Appian names various other conspirators in section 113. Those who immediately or eventually oppose them, and who will figure in the action of books 2 and 3, include P. Cornelius Dolabella (Dolabella), M. Aemilius Lepidus (Lepidus, son of the consul of 78 who had the same name), C. Asinius Pollio (Pollio, who later wrote a history of the civil war taking the year 60 BCE as his starting point, and who is probably one of Appian's sources), and L. Munatius Plancus (Plancus).
Themes to notice, in addition to the speeches:
The rivalry between people ostensibly on the same side, especially
Antonius and Octavian
The powerful influence of the Roman soldiers and the clear necessity
of continuing to bribe them to follow one leader or another (Appian often
refers to Octavian's troops as mercenaries)
The helpless of the Roman senate to direct affairs except when backed
by sufficient military force
1-8 Events after Caesar's funeral, including Antonius' attempts to keep all sides happy by killing a man called Amatius (aka Pseudo-Marius) and recalling Sex. Pompeius, Pompey's remaining son, and giving him control of the Roman fleet, upholding Caesar's acta, more of which he probably forged than Appian tells us about, getting himself a bodyguard, allowing Brutus and Cassius to leave Rome although they are praetors in this year, and giving Dolabella the province of Syria.
9-23 Enter the spoiler, whom Appian calls Caesar and the translator calls Octavian. The young man in question, Caesar's great-nephew, accepted his adoption by will as Caesar's namesake and heir and ought then to have been called, according to normal Roman nomenclature, C. Iulius Caesar Octavianus. He actually called himself C. Iulius Caesar divi filius (the last two words mean "son of a god"). Unhappy with his treatment by Antonius, Octavian accuses him of being insufficiently loyal and pious to the dictator's memory, and the two enter into a great rivalry.
24-26 Brutus and Cassius decide to take overseas provinces although their terms as praetor have not expired; Antonius uses a rumor about invasion of Macedonia to secure more military support; Dolabella takes Syria from Trebonius and has him killed.
27-39 Much more on the efforts of Octavian and Antonius to undermine the other's popularity with people and army, including the story that Octavian tried to have Antonius assassinated (section 39). It is worth noting, here as elsewhere, that Appian does not merely relate the narrative he has found in his sources, but passes judgment on the trustworthiness of many stories, e.g., in section 39 when he says that intelligent people realized that Octavian needed Antonius alive and thus it was silly to believe that he was plotting to kill him, and that skeptics (i.e., sensible people) did not believe either Antonius or Octavian.
40-48 While Antonius goes to the army at Brundisium, Octavian raises his own forces in Campania from Caesar's veterans. Much money given or promised to soldiers, both sides have problems with mutinies or desertion.
49-66 Antonius at the head of several legions opposed Decimus Brutus in Cisalpine Gaul; D. Brutus and his troops take control of the city of Mutina where Antonius besieges them. Back at Rome, there is much agitation in the senate, with Cicero leading the anti-Antonius argument. He is opposed by Piso (L. Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, who had been Caesar's father-in-law). Piso gets a much longer speech than Cicero. Finally, however, the senate declares Antonius a public enemy and Octavian appears to support the senate, agreeing to work with Hirtius and Pansa, the consuls of 43.
66-76 The battle(s) at Mutina. Note especially the hostility of one group of soldiers to another in section 67. Pansa is fatally wounded and Hirtius is killed, although Antonius is defeated and retreats.
77-79 The activities of Brutus and Cassius in the east.
80-98 Events in Italy and how, after the death of Pansa, Octavian has a falling out with the senate and decides to work with Antonius to punish his father's assassins, and how Lepidus, Pollio, and Plancus all end up on Antonius' side. D. Brutus is deserted by his troops, captured, and killed.
1-7 Preliminaries: bargaining among Lepidus, Antonius, and Octavian over who would get what (note eighteen Italian towns promised to the soldiers), decision to proscribe their enemies in Italy while pursuing those outside (e.g., Brutus and Cassius); omens; making up the lists; panic in Rome, and how additions to the lists came about.
8-11 Text of the triumvirs' decree, including the statement that they are not Sulla.
12 Lepidus proscribes his brother Paullus; Antonius proscribes his uncle L. Caesar; relatives of Plancus (his brother Plotius) and Asinius Pollio (his father-in-law Quinctius) are also proscribed.
13-16 The general processing of the proscriptions, general remarks of the historian (see esp. section 15 and compare the opening of Tacitus' Histories), what sensible people thought about this (section 14), and an odd comment about Augustus and why these particular proscriptions are so notable (section 16).
At this point, Virgil comes to mind:
Augustus Caesar, divi genus, aurea condet
saecula, . . .
[Augustus Caesar, offspring of a god, will establish
a golden age, . . .]
17-30 Specific people proscribed and how they died, including the first victims, Salvius (see 3.50-53), two praetors, Minucius and Annalis (the latter had a rotten son), Turanius who also had a rotten son, Cicero, his brother and nephew (sections 19-20), and a series of deaths that Appian uses as exempla to illustrate behavior of sons, wives, and others.
31-35 Lepidus' triumph, the announcement that women would have to pay a tax to fund the war effort, protest by the women, exacerbated by the obnoxious behavior of Fulvia, and a speech by their spokesperson, Hortensia (of course!), followed by a change to the persons assessed and a section devoted to the unacceptable behavior of many of the soldiers, behavior that the triumvirs were either unwilling or powerless to stop.
36-51 Tales of those who escaped, how, and to whom, with special mention of Sex. Pompeius. The most prominent are Messalla Corvinus, Bibulus fils, Varro, and Cicero fils.
52 Introduction of new topics: actual warfare in various theatres
53-56 Conflict in Africa, which Sextius regains for the triumvirs; death of Cornificius, who had defied them.
57-62 Cassius vs Dolabella in Asia; end of Dolabella.
63-65 Cassius has invasion of Egypt in mind; Brutus wants to fortify Macedonia; they decide to secure the sea first.
66-74 Conflict at sea against Rhodes, complete with speeches by Cassius and his former teacher; Cassius takes Rhodes and exacts large sums of money.
75-82 Brutus' operations in Asia Minor, similarly successful. L. Staius Murcus moves his ships from Greece, where he had been planning to prevent Cleopatra from helping Antonius and Octavian, to Brundisium, so that he can try to block troops and supplies from crossing the Adriatic.
83-86 Sex. Pompeius, including background from the battle of Munda; he will keep control of Sicily, and a fleet, for a long time.
87-88 Both sides aim for Macedonia; Cassius and Brutus have crossed from Asia Minor to Europe.
89-100 In chapter 89, Appian shows Cassius' worries about his troops, many of whom fought for Caesar. In chapters 90-100, a good long speech, Cassius tells his side to the soldiers, who support him. In the first half of the speech Cassius explains why Caesar had to be removed, then promises more money for the soldiers from the senate. In the second half, Cassius describes the unlawful activities of the triumvirs and the advantages of the army he and Brutus have in Macedonia: not only supplies but money, and he reiterates the message: we have paid, we will pay, we are paying now.
101 Note both the donative (a regular feature of the empire) and the live eagles that accompany the army's eagles right up until the battle, when they depart; oddly, Appian does not say anything here about the ominous effect of the eagles' departure.
102-104 Difficulties for Brutus' men to reach Philippi, although they finally arrive.
105 Brief history of Philippi and description of its situation.
106-114 Fortification of camps and the first battle joined, during which each side wins on one wing but loses on the other. Octavian, warned by a dream (and still ailing), keeps clear of the camp (and the battle). Death of Cassius, probably by suicide; Brutus calls him the last of the Romans.
115-116 A sea battle in the Adriatic during which Murcus and Ahenobarbus (they are not on the side of the triumvirs) interfere with the crossing of two legions to Greece from Italy.
117-118 Brutus' speech to his soldiers. He gives more money.
119-120 Antonius' speech to his soldiers. He promises more money.
121-124 Brutus waits in his camp, realizing the opponents will run out of supplies, but his officers interfere with his plans to avoid a fight if possible, just as Pompey's advisors had urged him to fight at Pharsalus six years before. Appian has Brutus say exactly this, in case the readers miss it.
125-138 The second battle at Philippi, death of Brutus, and Appian's final words.
There is a fifth book of Appian's Civil Wars but it is not assigned, and in fact, the whole conflict is not over until after the battle of Actium in 31 and the defeat of Antonius in Egypt in 30. Appian saved that story for the Egyptian part of his history.
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Last updated: 15 September 2010 Send Comments to: Barbara Rodgers, bsaylor@uvm.edu Copyright © 2010 Barbara Saylor Rodgers All Rights Reserved. |