2014 Annual Report Project Narratives

1 - AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS

Hatch
Assessing the Potential for Carbon Neutral Food Systems for Chittenden County, Vermont .

Accomplishments & Outputs:
Society must increase agriculture production to feed a growing population while reducing agriculture's global environmental impact or risk potentially catastrophic consequences. The goal of this project is to model a food system compatible with an 80% reduction in net greenhouse gas emissions, with a case study of Burlington VT. As part of this research, we developed an alternative definition of agricultural efficiency, which is the ratio between food security and ecological degradation. This ratio is identical to the product of economic efficiency (food security/food production), technical efficiency (food production/throughput, where throughput is defined as resource inputs and accompanying waste outputs) and ecological efficiency (throughput/ecological degradation). We published one journal article in Ecological Economics focused on economic efficiency, and submitted an NSF Dynamics of Coupled Natural Human Systems that seeks to compare these efficiency measures across different production systems. I published four book chapters (one in press), one encyclopedia article, two peer reviewed conference proceedings and a book (co-edited, in press) describing a constant throughput steady state economy. I gave three keynote conference presentations on agricultural efficiency and steady state economics. We are currently finishing up a Bayesian neural network model of carbon footprints and food production from different agroecosystems, and will use the results in a linear programing model to determine the minimum level of greenhouse gas emissions compatible with meeting the nutritional requirements for Chittenden County, Vermont.

Publications:
Farley, J., Schmitt Filho, A., Burke, M., Farr, M. (2014). Extending market allocation to ecosystem services: Moral and practical implications on a full and unequal planet. Ecological Economics. DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2014.06.021

Farley, J. (2014) Steady State Economics in (D'Alisa, G., Demaria, F., Kallis, G. eds.) Degrowth: a vocabulary for a new era. Routledge, New York

Hatch/MultiState
Northeast Pasture Consortium .

Principal Investigator: J. Gorres

Accomplishments & Outputs:
The purpose of this project is to investigate and demonstrate ways to remediate compaction in rotational grazing systems. The tools utilized are subsurface tillage and tillage radish. The former practice reduces soil moisture and thus the chance of compaction. The latter practice has been shown to be effective in soils of field crops. The deep tap roots of daikon radishes can cut through compacted layers improving field hydrology.
Dairy production that relies at least in part on grazing is regarded as environmentally friendly with some benefits to consumers. In general, pasturing dairy cows reduces the potential for water pollution compared to concentrated animal feeding operation (CAFO). This is partly because CAFO relies on corn production which may cause more run-off and erosion. The separation of feed production and dairy production inherent in the corn-fed dairy system also causes environmental and economic stresses as it requires the transportation, storage and land application of large amounts of manure.
In a grazing system, some of these strains are relieved. Yet, management of pastures in Vermonts climate with its short growing season can be difficult because pastures may not be given sufficient time to recover from grazing episodes. One approach to balance the environmental benefits of grazing with the potential damage to forage production is rotational grazing. In this system, a pasture is divided into small paddocks. A herd is confined to one paddock at a time for a short duration before being rotated to the next time. This ensures that a grazed paddock is not being revisited by the cause for quite some time, enough time to allow vegetation to rebound from grazing. Thus, rotational grazing is considered an efficient way to get dairy cows back on pastures.
There are drawbacks to rotational grazing. Rotational grazing concentrates many cows in small paddocks, albeit for a small period of time. This can cause severe soil compaction in particular in pastures that are on wet meadow ecosystems. Compaction in turn will reduce plant productivity. Compaction can also cause additional runoff and potentially erosion as it leads to patches that are not covered by vegetation.
Information about the benefits and drawbacks of the two alternative compaction management systems have been summarized in a fact sheet developed with Cooperative Extension (see below). A national CIG grant was developed with Extension (PI: Joshua Faulkner : $173,000, Demonstrating Effects of Compaction Best Management Practices on Soil Properties and Water Movement) and approved that will demonstrate further the utility of compaction mitigation systems in pasture systems.
For next year, I will investigate more of the water quality issues associated with altering field hydrology using compaction mitigation. In particular, my interest is in how water flow changes edge-of-field losses from pastures. This is an important concern as algal blooms in Lake Champlain point towards significant phosphorus pollution.

Publications:
Gilker, R., Gorres, J.H., Colby, J. et al. 2014 Addressing Pasture Compaction. http://www.uvm.edu/pasture

Kennebec Valley Community College
Kennebec Valley Community College TACT 25 Evaluation Plan .

Principal Investigator: J. Kolodinsky

Accomplishments & Outputs:
Kennebec Valley Community College (KVCC) received a grant from the United States Department of Labor to support development of degree and certificate programs in the areas of Sustainable Agriculture and Culinary Arts. These programs help address a critical gap in educational offerings for individuals interested in pursuing employment in sustainable agriculture in Maine. As of June 2014, 12 students are enrolled in the Sustainable Agriculture degree program and the Culinary Arts program is set to begin enrolling students in Fall 2014. KVCC has identified four learning outcomes for its Sustainable Agriculture program graduates: Possess the knowledge and skills necessary for a successful career in agriculture. Identify, develop, and practice traditional and alternative agricultural methods. Use technical and learned knowledge to collaborate and solve complex agricultural problems. Demonstrate effective communication skills.
The Center for Rural Studies has provided grant evaluation services for this project, with the intent to provide useful information that can be used to improve the program after the first year, as well as provide reporting to the Dept of Labor to illustrate the efficacy of its grant.

Hatch
Feeding stearidonic acid-rich oils to enhance animal health and nutritional attributes of bovine milk .

Principal Investigator: J. Kraft

Accomplishments & Outputs:
Echium oil is a terrestrial source of n-3 fatty acids (FA) that is particularly high in the n-3 FA stearidonic acid (SDA; 18:4 6c,9c,12c,15c) which bypasses the rate limiting step of delta-6-desaturase in conversion to eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in mammalian tissues. The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of feeding a lipid-encapsulated echium oil supplement on animal production and milk fatty acid concentrations. Twelve Holstein dairy cattle were assigned randomly to treatment sequence in a 3x3 Latin Square design. Treatments were a control diet (CON; no added EO), 1.5% EO (1.5% EO), or 3.0% diet DM added EO (3.0% EO). Treatment periods were 14 d with the final 4 d used for sample and data collection. The statistical model included the random effect of cow nested within square and the fixed effects of treatment and period. Compared with control, EO treatments had no effect on DMI, milk yield, or milk protein yield. Increasing EO supplementation increased milk fat concentration and fat yield but decreased milk protein concentration for CON, 1.5% EO, and 3.0% EO, respectively. Compared with control, the concentration of total saturated FA in milk fat decreased with increasing EO supplementation. Increasing EO supplementation increased milk fat concentration of total n-3 FA, α-Linolenic acid (18:3 n-3), and SDA for CON, 1.5% EO, 3.0% EO, respectively. For 1.5% EO and 3.0% EO milk fat concentration of EPA was 0.05 g/100 g FA vs. 0.03 g/100 g FA for CON. DHA was not detected in milk fat. Transfer of SDA from the EO supplement into milk fat was 3.4% and 3.2% for the 1.5% and 3% EO treatments, respectively. In conclusion, supplementation with a lipid-encapsulated EO supplement did not negatively impact lactational responses and increased the concentration of n-3 FA in milk fat. However, the concentration of n-3 FA in milk fat was still a minor component of total milk FA. Our results have been disseminated through written materials in conference proceedings and through presentations at conferences to audiences including research scientists and dairy professionals. Research in the coming year is evaluating the effect of RPEO on various health parameters of dairy cattle.

Publications:
Bainbridge, M., Lock, A.L., Kraft, J. Enhancing the nutritional attributes of bovine milk to achieve a more desirable product tailored to meet the consumer's needs. ASFS/AFHVS Conference 2014, Burlington, VT, June 18-22, 2014.

Bainbridge, M., Lock, A.L., Kraft, J. Effects of Supplementing Lipid-Encapsulated Echium Oil on Lactational Responses and Milk Fatty Acid Composition. 2014 ADSA-ASAS-CSAS Joint Annual Meeting. Kansas City, MO, July 20-24, 2014. J Anim Sci 92, E-Suppl. 2/J Dairy Sci. 97, E-Suppl. 1. p175.

Bainbridge, M., Lock, A.L., Kraft, J. Feeding rumen-protected echium oil increases the omega-3 fatty acid content of bovine milk. Joint ISNH/ISRP International Conference 2014, Canberra, Australia, September 8 - 12, 2014.

Hatch
Enhancing the nutritional attributes of bovine milk to achieve a more desirable product tailored to provide health-promoting benefits .

Principal Investigator: J. Kraft

Accomplishments & Outputs:
There is growing interest in the development of value-added (functional) milk and dairy products to maximize their contribution to health promotion and disease prevention. Omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids are a class of bioactive unsaturated fatty acids that have known health benefits for humans and cattle. Echium oil, a sustainable plant-based seed oil, contains high levels of the n-3 fatty acids stearidonic acid (SDA) and alpha-linolenic acid (ALA). The goal of this project was to establish a feeding strategy to enhance the nutritional value of bovine milk fat though utilization of echium oil as an alternative to marine oils. Twelve lactating Holstein cows were fed three diets in a 3 x 3 Latin square design with 2-week periods. One diet was a control with no added supplement, and the other two diets were supplemented with rumen-protected echium oil (RPEO) in concentrations of 1.5% and 3% of dry matter intake (DMI). Milk yield and DMI were recorded daily. Individual milk samples were collected on the last 4 days of each period to determine proximate and fatty acid composition. Separation and quantitation of fatty acids was achieved using gas-liquid chromatography. Treatments had no effect on DMI, milk yield, milk components, or feed efficiency. n-3 fatty acids SDA, ALA, and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) as well as total n-3 fatty acids, and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) concentrations increased in the milk of both treatment groups compared to control. The n-6/n-3 fatty acid ratio decreased in milk of supplemented cows relative to the control group. In conclusion, RPEO is a stable delivery system of omega-3 fatty acids to improve the milk fatty acid composition without adverse effects on milk production, fat yield, milk components, or DMI.

Publications:
Bainbridge, M., Lock, A.L., Kraft, J. Effects of Supplementing Lipid-Encapsulated Echium Oil on Lactational Responses and Milk Fatty Acid Composition. 2014 ADSA-ASAS-CSAS Joint Annual Meeting. Kansas City, MO, July 20-24, 2014. J Anim Sci 92, E-Suppl. 2/J Dairy Sci. 97, E-Suppl. 1. p175.

Green Mountain Coffee Roasters, Inc.
Confronting the Thin Months: Participatory Learning on Best Practices and Impacts of the GMCR Food Security Program .

Principal Investigator: V. Mendez

Accomplishments & Outputs:
Purpose of the project was to analyze seasonal food insecurity in coffee communities of Mexico and Nicaragua. All stated objectives have been met. In July I visited communities in Chiapas, with graduate student Margarita Fernandez, to share research results. Margarita is due to finish her PhD by April. Margarita has presented the work in 3 conferences, and I have shared it with coffee cooperatives in El Salvador and Nicaragua. In addition, we presented together at the Mexican university ECOSUR in Chiapas. One paper has been submitted to the journal Globalizations, on conference paper was published in proceedings and we are preparing 2 more period reviewed papers.
The main activity to pursue next year is to develop a best practices manual on food security/sovereignty for coffee communities in Mesoamerica, as well as submit 2 additional papers.

Publications:
Fernandez, M., V.E. Mendez & C. Bacon (2013) Seasonal hunger in coffee communities: integrated analysis of livelihoods, agroecology and food sovereignty with smallholders of Mexico and Nicaragua. Conference Paper # 42. Food Sovereignty: A critical dialogue. International Conference at Yale University. September 14-15.

Vermont Community Foundation
Vermont Agricultural Resilience in a Changing Climate .

Principal Investigator: V. Mendez

Accomplishments & Outputs:
Our project supported farmers and agricultural service providers to find the best ways to adapt to and mitigate climate change. Vermont farmers and service-providers (39 total) demonstrate increased knowledge and intent to implement practices to increase farm resilience in a warmer, wetter climate and contribute to environmental quality. Five innovative farmers were compensated as co-educators (some for participating in several events). Secured an additional $30,000 in funding for additional project activities

Publications:
Westdijk, K., A. Hoogenboom, C.E. Adair, L. Berlin, M. Caswell, D. Conner, H. Darby, R. Fox, S. Hurley, V.E. Mendez, R. Schattman and A. Zia (2014) UVM project aims to increase farm resilience in a changing climate. Vermont Agency of Natural Resources. Burlington, VT. The Climate Connection Newsletter. Spring.

High Meadows Fund
On-Farm Best Management Practices and Service-Provider Professional Development .

Principal Investigator: V. Mendez

Accomplishments & Outputs:
This project engaged service providers who make regular on-farm visits in a series of training workshops on agricultural climate change best management practices (CCBMPs) and their practical applications. Accomplishments: Visited 8 Vermont farms and met with farmers to develop partnership for research and outreach.
Organized and presented a Climate Resilience information tent at the 2014 Vermont Crops and Soils Team field day. Seventy-seven of the 173 attendees identified as non-farmers and included representatives from VT Energy Investment Corp., Organic Valley, Yankee Farm Credit, VT Sustainable Jobs Fund, Northwest Veterinary Services, Friends of Northern Lake Champlain, VT Land Trust, Morrison Feeds, NOFA VT, NY Dept. of Environmental Conservation, Stone Environmental Consulting Services.
Convened 5 meetings of the Outreach Working Group with 2 meetings specifically dedicated to service-provider outreach. Other meetings included defining a collective 'outreach vision' to address challenges arising from diverse opinions in the group, specifically around when this project would be 'outreach ready'.
Trained 9 service providers using a webinar and a modified version of the 'Reading the Farm' methodology to address climate change adaptation in 2 farm settings of South Hero, Vermont (Oct. 31, 2014).
This coming year we will fine-tune service provider training methods, in collaboration with the Center for Sustainable Agriculture, to implement at least 2 more trainings on climate change adaptation in Vermont farms.

Vermont Agency of Agriculture, Food, and Markets
Spotted Wing Drosophila Exclusion Blueberries and Raspberries in Vermont .

Principal Investigator: V. Mendez

Accomplishments & Outputs:
The goal of this project is to identify and test cost effective methods for organically managing Spotted Wing Drosophila (D. suzukii; SWD) for Northeastern growers of soft fruit. Project is developing as planned. All field sampling has been done and data analysis is in progress and to be finalized this year and prepared for publication.

Green Mountain Coffee Roasters, Inc.
To Revisit the CIAT Coffee Farmer Welfare Study (2007-2013) .

Principal Investigator: V. Mendez

Accomplishments & Outputs:
Purpose of the project was to conduct a longitudinal study (2007-2013) to assess how farmer livelihoods seasonal insecurity had changed in coffee communities of Nicaragua, Guatemala and Mexico. Project outputs included a research report to the donor, 1 published policy brief, 1 peer-reviewed article submitted and in review, 2 presentations to cooperatives in Nicaragua and Mexico, 1 presentation at the Tropical Agriculture Research and Education Center. Project was completed as planned. More publications should be forthcoming.

Publications:
Baca, M., T. Liebig, M. Caswell, S. Castro-Tanzi, V.E. Mendez, P. Laderach, W.B. Morris and Y. Aguirre (2013) Revisiting the Thin Months in Coffee Communities of Guatemala, Mexico and Nicaragua. Final Research Report. CIAT & UVM ARLG: Cali & Vermont.

Caswell, M., V.E. Mendez, M. Baca, P. Laderach, T. Liebig, S. Castro-Tanzi and M. Fernandez (2014) Revisiting the 'thin months'- a follow-up study on livelihoods of Mesoamerican coffee farmers. Policy Brief # 19. Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT): Cali Colombia.

Hatch
Climate Adaptation and Mitigation in the Lake Champlain Basin (LCB) of Vermont .

Principal Investigator: V. Mendez

Accomplishments & Outputs:
We have been working with Vermont farms, including vegetables, dairy, beef and diversified. By investigating the potential for GHG emissions reduction, carbon sequestration and crop production potential of specific agricultural practices, our study has identified and evaluated climate change best management practices (CCBMPs). We conducted a 2 step survey of 1100 farms in Vermont, with a response of 88 full surveys for analysis. Interviews have been conducted with 16 farmers and 12 service providers. On farm trials are ongoing in 12 farms of the 4 types mentioned above, analyzing GHG and economic data of 5 CCBMPs. 6 publications are in progress and we have conducted over 6 presentations in conferences and extension events. 2 MS students funded through the project have graduated and 1 MS and 1 PhD are set to graduate in the coming year. The following year we are working on data integration and analysis for publications, finishing on-farm experimentation and conducting farmer to farmer workshops on CCBMPs.

Publications:
Schattman, R., V.E. Mendez, K. Westdjik, M. Caswell, D. Conner, C. Koliba, A. Zia, S. Hurley, C. Adair, L. Berlin and H. Darby (2014) Vermont agricultural resilience in a changing climate: A transdisciplinary and participatory action research (PAR) process. pp. In N. Benkeblia (Ed.) Agroecology, ecosystems, and sustainability. CRC Press/Taylor and Francis: Boca Raton, FL.

11 projects 1a - Dairy

Hatch
Adjusting to Vermont:Stress Among Latino Farmworkers & State Policy Development .

Principal Investigator: D. Baker

Accomplishments & Outputs:
Vermont is a new Latino destination where many of these Spanish-speaking immigrants have work on dairy farms. The health status of these workers has been a concern and recent research in Vermont found that barriers to health care of Hispanic dairy farmworkers include fear of immigration law enforcement, language issues and lack of transportation. Relatively few workers reported health problems, of those who did a surprisingly large percentage reported experiencing depression or anxiety. This finding highlighted how little is known about the mental health impacts of stress and isolation on these farmworkers. This project seeks to conduct a rapid assessment of depression and anxiety among Latino dairy farm workers, building on the research teams experience working with this population. The results will be shared with health care providers in Vermont through an annual statewide meeting and work with agencies providing services to these workers. The development of Vermont state policies to address the mental and physical health issues faced by Latino dairy workers will also be investigated. A 1-year no-cost extension was received for this project. During 2014 results from migrant self-reported health issues were compared with health clinic intake data. A statewide public opinion poll tracking changes in public perceptions of migrant farmworkers was completed. The PI participated in a study committee on farmworker housing and assisted with a preliminary assessment of farmworker housing standards for development of an evaluation protocol. A summary of recent research was presented at a regional food systems conference and a brief publication for the farming community on the continuing issue of bedbugs in farmworker housing was submitted.

Publications:
Baker, D. (2014) Self-assessed health care issues of Latino dairy farmworkers in Vermont. Individual presentation as part of a panel titled Farmworker Wellbeing in New England's Dairies at the Association for the Study of Food & Society Annual Conference. Burlington, VT. June 19, 2014

Shea, E. and Baker, D. (2014) Bedbugs (Dont Have to Be) On the Farm. Agriview. Vermont Agency of Agriculture. Montpelier, VT. Vol. 78 no. 4. April 25, 2014.

Agricultural Research Service/Department of Agriculture
Holstein Cattle Major Histocompatibilty (MHC) Gene Diversity and Tracking the Immune Response to an Adenoviral Vectored Foot and Mouth Disease Vaccine Using MHC Tetramer Technology .

Principal Investigator: J. Barlow

Accomplishments & Outputs:
The purpose of this project is to determine the allele diversity and frequency of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I genes in a pure-bred herd of Holstein dairy cattle. These genes are critical in the T cell mediated immune response to intracellular pathogens including viruses. We have adapted molecular methods to determine the class I allele types of 180 Holstein cattle from a UVM Dairy Center of Excellence herd. Phylogenetic analysis of published MHC class I alleles has been completed and demonstrates clustering of alleles within putative gene clusters. Allele typing has identified new sequences and allele combinations which have not been reported previously. We conclude from these results that MHC genetic structure may be more complex than previously presumed. A high-throughput high-throughput sequence-based MHC allele typing system is under development for Holstein cattle. We will compare results of this high-throughput typing method to the established sequence specific typing and sub-cloning of expressed genes. We will use these data to develop assays to evaluate how MHC allele-type influences the immune response to Foot and Mouth Disease Virus vaccination. We have developed 6 recombinant bovine MHC class I molecules. In the next year will develop 2 class II molecules. For the class I molecules we have determined epitope binding affinity and stability in an in vitro system, and these results have been used to inform the predictive algorithm NetMHCpan. We have identified a series of peptides from the Foot and Mouth Disease Virus (FMDV) capsid proteome which are predicted to bind the 6 class I MHC molecules. These synthetic MHC molecule peptide combinations will be used as immunologic tools to evaluate T cell immune responses of Holstein cattle following vaccination or natural infection with FMDV. Results of this work will be disseminated to the research community by presentations at international meetings and through submission of manuscripts for publication in peer-reviewed scientific journals.

National Science Foundation
BREAD: A Modern Approach for the Development of Cattle Vaccines for Critical Bovine Diseases Impacting Smallholder Farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa .

Principal Investigator: J. Barlow

Accomplishments & Outputs:
An international team of scientists from the United States, Kenya, and Denmark have established a collaborative research program to examine the use of new technologies in immunology with the goal of accelerating vaccine development for two critical cattle diseases that impact smaller holder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa. The objectives of the project are to establish and advance gene typing methods for the major histocompatibility (MHC), also known as bovine leukocyte antigens (BoLA), class I and II genes of cattle. We have successfully identified methods and initiated typing of Holstein cattle in a University of Vermont Dairy Center of Excellence herd. In collaboration with Washington State University, we have evaluated the haplotypes of approximately 80 animals for the MHC Class II DRB3 alleles by the polymerase chain reaction restriction fragment length polymorphism method. For typing MHC Class I genes we have adapted PCR based methods of Ellis et al. and developed extended methods for allele specific PCR using a bio-informatics approach to assay design. Collaborators have completed synthesis of a panel of synthetic recombinant bovine MHC molecules which will be used as immunologic tools to evaluate T cell immune responses of Holstein cattle following vaccination or natural infection. Experiments have been completed describing the binding affinity of these molecules. These results are expanding our understanding of BoLA gene expression and diversity in Holstein cattle. Results of this work will be disseminated to the research community by presentations at international meetings and through submission of manuscripts for publication in peer-reviewed scientific journals. In the next years we plan to demonstrate the use of a panel of bovine class II MHC-tetramer molecules in studies of Holstein cattle immune responses.

Agricultural Research Service/Department of Agriculture
Duration of Immunity to Vaccination of Cattle with Human Ad5FMDV Vaccine .

Principal Investigator: J. Barlow

Accomplishments & Outputs:
The goals of this research are to evaluate the duration of immunity and protection from viral challenge following vaccination of Holstein cattle with the newly approved Foot and Mouth Disease Virus vaccine. The first experiments demonstrated that vaccination can provide protection of cattle from live virus challenge up to 6 months following vaccination. In the next years we will vaccinate a second group of cattle and evaluate their immune response at 9 and 12 months following vaccination. Results of this work will be disseminated to the research community by presentations at international meetings and through submission of manuscripts for publication in peer-reviewed scientific journals.

Hatch/MultiState
Mastitis Resistance to Enhance Dairy Food Safety .

Principal Investigator: J. Barlow

Accomplishments & Outputs:
The multi-state project NE-1048 objectives include: Objective 1) Characterization of host mechanisms associated with mastitis susceptibility and resistance; Objective 2) Characterization and manipulation of virulence factors of mastitis pathogens for enhancing host defenses; Objective 3) Assessment and application of new technologies that advance mastitis control, milk quality and dairy food safety. The Barlow lab will address objective 2 and the sub-objectives i) characterization of pathogen virulence factors, ii) antimicrobial resistance, and iii) molecular epidemiology and diagnostic tools. We will examine potential associations between antimicrobial use practices, carriage of antimicrobial resistance genes and response to antimicrobial therapy among different strain types of Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus uberis. We will characterize and evaluate the impact of putative virulence factors in vitro and the examine association of these factors with DNA-based strain types for S. aureus. We will evaluate the use of molecular epidemiologic tools to describe transmission dynamics of contagious mastitis pathogens and antimicrobial resistance. Our work will focus on the epidemiology of staphylococci in emerging sectors of the dairy industry in Vermont including niche dairy farms (e.g. on-farm artisanal cheese producers and organic dairy farms) and dairy farms adopting automated milking technologies. We have completed a pilot study of contagious mastitis pathogen transmission in a herd milking cows in robotic systems. We have also completed a 12 month study of milk quality on 43 organic dairy farms and have established a library of S. aureus isolates from these farms. We have identified 20 different strain types with 90% of the isolates clustering in 3 clonal complexes. Our goal is to combine molecular and mathematical epidemiological approaches to unravel the complex problems of chronic intramammary infections and antimicrobial resistance emergence and transmission in cattle populations. In the next year we will conduct in vitro studies of virulence for S. aureus isolates from our library. Outputs will include peer reviewed publications, presentations at national and local meetings, and contributions to bacterial isolate collections with epidemiological data.

Hatch
Food Safety from Milking to Marketing for Vermont Artisanal Cheese Makers .

Principal Investigator: J. Barlow

Accomplishments & Outputs:
The objective of this project is to support Vermont's growing artisanal cheese production regional food chain with food safety microbiology, epidemiology and consumer research, and extension activities directly linked to human health concerns. The project addresses food safety research and extension gaps for Vermont's artisanal cheese makers. First, food safety pathogen epidemiology and detection research is addressed across the entire on-farm cheese production chain. Second, research on a novel pathogen detection technology that may be scalable to all size dairy operations, including small-scale on-farm artisanal cheese makers is proposed. The integration of these detection technologies with an improved understanding of pathogen epidemiology will fill gaps in our current abilities to mitigate food safety risk on dairy farms producing cheese or other raw milk products. Third, proposed research on consumer beliefs, attitudes, and practices brings the project full circle from milk production to marketing and back to production again by providing artisan cheese makers with knowledge on consumer issues. Finally, extension efforts which will help disseminate research results and knowledge to key stakeholders are integrated into this proposal at multiple levels, and form the foundation for establishing future research and collaborations on artisanal cheese production and food safety. In this year we have identified on-farm sources associated with isolation of Staphylococcus and Listeria species. We have determined that while many species or strains can be found in bulk tank milk, some specific species and strains are more commonly found on cow udder skin and in milk, while others are more commonly found in feed, and the barn or milking environment. These findings will help inform milking hygiene and mastitis control practices on dairy farms that produce artisan cheese. We have also completed parallel surveys of farmstead cheese producers and their consumers. In the coming year we will disseminate these results to farmstead cheese producers through workshops or stakeholder meetings.

Publications:
Leamy, R., Heiss, S. N., & Roche, E. (2014). The impact of consumer motivations and sources of information on unpasteurized milk consumption in Vermont, 2013. Food Protection Trends, 34(4), 216-225.

Leamy, Ryan. 2014. Diversification activities of Vermont dairy farmers: A study of raw milk and local beef processing in the state. Master of Community Development and Applied Economics Thesis. Department of Community Development and Applied Economics. University of Vermont at Burlington, Vermont.

Suozzo, Andrea. 2014. Pasteurization and its discontents: Raw milk, risk, and the reshaping of the dairy industry. Food Systems. Master of Food Systems Thesis. University of Vermont at Burlington, Vermont.

Walker (George) Milk Research Fund
Feeding Dairy Cows to Produce Healthy Milk .

Principal Investigator: S. Greenwood

Accomplishments & Outputs:
The purpose of this project is to include byproducts (grape marc and coffee grounds) in the diets fed to lactating dairy cattle and determine whether these byproducts affect the comprehensive bovine milk protein and fatty acid profiles produced. We had originally projected to have both trials associated with this project (Trial 1: inclusion of grape marc in diets fed to dairy cattle, Trial 2: inclusion of coffee grounds in diets fed to dairy cattle) completed by Fall 2014; however, we have had some significant struggles in securing an appropriate graduate student to complete the proposed research. We are currently going through another round of interviews (our fourth round) and hope to have a student begin work on these projects by spring 2015. As a result, we are also in the process of requesting a no-cost extension for this project. The decision has been made that if no appropriate graduate student can be secured in this round of interviews then we will proceed with completion of the projects employing undergraduate students.

Hatch
Creating a healthier bovine milk proteome using alternative forages .

Principal Investigator: S. Greenwood

Accomplishments & Outputs:
Milk proteins and peptides are biologically active within the milk-fed animal, affecting biological processes ranging from immunological function to nutrient delivery. The purpose of this research was to determine whether we could change the milk protein profile produced by lactating dairy cattle by providing different forage types to dairy cattle, with specific focus on milk bioactive proteins known to affect human health. Our first objective was to include red clover in the diet fed to lactating dairy cattle and measure the milk protein response. Unfortunately, a poor growing season during the summer of 2013 resulted poor red clover growth in our test plots, and poor red clover mass in the alternative forage source we had secured for purchase (less than 50% yield). Therefore, we instead developed two diets using commercially available ingredients that closely mimicked the actions of red clover on ruminant metabolism. We created both a control diet (CON) and a diet that was high in rumen undegradable protein (RUP), the RUP diet being similar to the profile of a red clover-based diet. We were able to complete an on-farm trial using these two diets during the Fall of 2013 using cows from UVM's CREAM herd. We collected feed, milk, blood, urine, feces, and rumen fluid samples over a 63-day trial. We have completed nutrient analysis of the feed, metabolite (glucose, non-esterified fatty acid, urea nitrogen, and beta-hydroxybutyrate) analysis of the blood, and nitrogen analysis of the urine and feces. We have worked with the University of Vermont Proteomics Facility to develop a method using Mass Spectrometry that identifies approximately 1170 minor milk proteins. We have also developed methodology in our laboratory to analyze the major milk proteins (alpha-, beta-, kappa- casein, beta-lactoglobulin, alpha-lactalbumin). In agreement with our original proposed timeline, we anticipate completion of all analyses for this experiment by January 2015 and submission of a manuscript by the end of summer 2015. Our aim is to then be able to complete an experiment using alternative forages, focusing on the proteins of interest we have determined by this first study.

National Institute of Food and Agriculture/Department of Agriculture
Effects of Variation in Pathogen Detection and Signaling Pathways on Resistance to Bovine Mastitis .

Principal Investigator: D. Kerr

Accomplishments & Outputs:
Experiments are being conducted to evaluate the hypothesis that genetic or epigenetic differences in genes associated with pathogen detection and response contribute to differences between cows in their innate resistance to mastitis. We are using dermal fibroblasts as a model cell type to evaluate between-animal differences in the innate response to an E. coli cell wall component (LPS). We have also established a relationship between our in vitro results and in vivo results from LPS challenged calves and lactating cows. Fibroblast cultures were established from 15 calves sampled at approximately 5 and 16 months of age. Responses of the fibroblasts to LPS revealed a substantial age-dependent increase in IL-8 production. This molecule is key to recruiting immune cells to the site of infection and is being used as a marker of the strength of the innate immune response. The age related difference in response is not genetic, as the cells were established from the same animals. We now have evidence that epigenetic mechanisms are responsible. Epigenetic mechanisms, such as DNA-methylation, suppress the ability of genes to be expressed. We find that the age-dependent differential response can be abolished by pre-treating the cells with a compound that results in demethylation of the DNA. We are now using cutting edge Next-generation sequencing techniques to locate age-related differences in the epigenetic mechanism known as DNA methylation.

Publications:
Green, B.B., and D.E. Kerr. 2014. Epigenetic contribution to individual variation in response to lipopolysaccharide in bovine dermal fibroblasts. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology. 157:49-58.

Animal Health
Genetic and Epigenetic Contribution to Variation between Animals in Strength of Response to Vaccination .

Principal Investigator: D. Kerr

Accomplishments & Outputs:
The proposed research seeks to explore genetic and epigenetic causes for variation that exists between cows in the strength of their response to vaccination. We will expand on previous work demonstrating that the ex vivo fibroblast model predicts an animal's in vivo response to bacterial antigens. One aim of this project is to determine the potential effects of bovine recombinant cytokines IL-17 and IL-22 on protein expression of primary bovine fibroblasts. Under this aim we used positive control cell lines and cytokines to developed a real time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assay to measure mRNA responses of innate immune function proteins (beta-defensins and lingual antimicrobial protein) that may pay a role in innate immunity during bacterial infections. Another aim is to determine if there is an association between specific anti-viral antibody response following vaccination of 15 cattle with viral antigens and the innate immune response measured in cultured primary fibroblasts from those cattle. Under this aim we have completed an initial vaccination trial and determined that there is variation among individuals in the degree of serum virus neutralization antibodies to the viral antigens. In the coming year we will complete a second vaccine trial where we will characterize the immune response of 20 cattle to vaccination with adenovirus antigens using both ELISA and serum viral neutralization assays. We will then classify these cattle as high or low responders based on the degree of their antibody response within the first 30 days following vaccination. Primary fibroblasts will be isolated from skin biopsies collected from 8 cattle, 4 high responders and 4 low responders. We will measure IL-8 and IL-10 production by these dermal fibroblasts in response to LPS stimulation.

Hatch/MultiState
Mastitis Resistance to Enhance Dairy Food Safety .

Principal Investigator: D. Kerr

Accomplishments & Outputs:
Genetic causes for differences between animals in their response to mastitis causing pathogens are being evaluated with a fibroblast cell model system. In this system, fibroblast cells from different cows are obtained from skin biopsies, cultured in the laboratory, and then stimulated with pathogens, or pathogen toxins. The cell's production of inflammatory cytokines is then measured in the culture media. We have made progress in identifying sets of cows whose fibroblasts differ dramatically in their response to stimulation with E. coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS). These fibroblasts are from differing breeds of cattle; one being a dairy breed (Holstein), and one being a beef breed (Angus). The Holstein animals are much more responsive to LPS than are the Angus animals. This novel finding holds great potential for us to identify genetic polymorphisms in cattle genes, or epigenetic effects that affect the innate immune response. The field of epigenetics is rapidly expanding and may be key to understanding how environmental influences such as early life disease can change DNA-methylation patterns for the life of the animal and thus affect the ability of their genes to be expressed. This could have a significant impact on the ability on an animal to realize their genetic potential. This breed difference work has come about through an on-going collaboration with Dr. B. Crooker at the University of Minnesota. Bioinformatics analysis is being conducted in collaboration with Dr. Stephanie McKay from our department, while the next-generation sequencing was conducted at the University of Vermont core DNA analysis facility. Preliminary results of our studies have been presented at national and international meetings of animal and dairy scientists. We are now conducting additional studies aimed at identifying genetic or epigenetic causes for the differential response.

National Institute of Food and Agriculture/Department of Agriculture
Characterizing the Rumen Microbiome in Dairy Cows as a Tool to Improve Health Attributes of Bovine Milk Fat .

Principal Investigator: J. Kraft

Accomplishments & Outputs:
The purpose of the project is to investigate host-rumen microbiota interactions and their contribution to the content of branched-chain fatty acids (BCFA) in milk fat. Specific objectives are to 1) identify the rumen microbiota population structure and 2) compare the type, concentration, and ratios of BCFA in rumen digesta, rumen microbial cells, and milk between Holsteins, Jerseys, and Holstein/Jersey crossbreds maintained on the same diet. We have collected milk and rumen digesta samples at five days postpartum and at months 3, 6, and 9. Using molecular and analytical approaches, we currently identify the rumen bacterial and protozoal populations and determine the fatty acid content and profile of rumen digesta, ruminal bacteria and protozoa, and milk. This coming year we will analyze the analytical data and prepare a publication on this work.

National Institute of Food and Agriculture/Department of Agriculture
Costs and Challenges Associated with Developing and Implementing a Community-Wide Biosecurity Plan .

Principal Investigator: J. Smith

Accomplishments & Outputs:
Livestock farmers and surrounding communities need cost-effective and reasonable approaches to prevent disease and minimize the indirect costs of disease control in the event of a highly contagious animal disease emergency such as foot-and-mouth disease. Through this multi-disciplinary project, farmers and community members have improved their resilience to animal disease disasters by gaining awareness of steps that could be taken to mitigate such a disaster. Farmers and community members have contributed to the development of tools to support decision-making in the event of a contagious disease emergency while reducing economic costs and losses.

Hatch
Relationship between early calf feeding and ecology of the gut .

Principal Investigator: J. Smith

Accomplishments & Outputs:
By better understanding the relationship among barn ventilation and other factors and respiratory disease in calves, recommendations to support improved respiratory health can be made to farmers. Farms with group-housed calves are being recruited to participate in the study. Data collection is underway and one farm was featured in an Across the Fence episode.

National Institute of Food and Agriculture/Department of Agriculture
Artisan Cheese, Sensory Embeddedness, and the Working Landscape .

Principal Investigator: A. Trubek

Accomplishments & Outputs:
This research investigated the importance of consumer skill and product information as a function of "embeddedness" to the perception of Vermont artisan cheese. It employed qualitative methodology (focus groups and ethnographic interviewing) in order to gain insight into how consumers and producers create, choose, and appreciate Vermont artisan cheeses in everyday life. It then used quantitative sensory methodology (consumer affective and analytical tests) to examine the measurable effects of the information gathered from the qualitative research. This will serve as a case study for the larger issue of understanding the complex construction of the human sensory perception of food, and as an approach that will support rural economic development as it supports small, localized agricultural businesses. The long-term goal of this research is to develop a new framework to understand and analyze consumer preferences (sensory perception and food choice) in order to better support the small agricultural businesses that are becoming the backbone of rural communities. The research specifically had the following goals: One: Determine how consumers of Vermont artisan cheese create and understand their own sensory experience of the product. Gain deep insight into subjective consumer expertise through qualitative research methods (focus groups and ethnographic interviewing). Two: Elucidate the relationship between sensory perception, product and consumer social embeddedness, and product properties through quantitative sensory methodologies with information conditions. Demonstrate that consumers of Vermont artisan cheese make different objective assessments of product acceptability when products are presented with information determined to be significant. Demonstrate that differences in product evaluation stemming from information conditions (see above) are predicted by consumer relationship and involvement with Vermont artisan cheese. Three: Develop methodologies to help support and understand both artisan cheesemakers in Vermont and emerging and extant artisan producers in general throughout the US. Demonstrate using validated sensory science methodology that examining boththe physical (intrinsic) and social (extrinsic) properties of Vermont artisan cheese better explains consumer preference thanthe physical properties alone.All three goals were addressed through the analysis of data collected during the previous project period and the publication of three journal articles and the successful completion of a dissertation.

Publications:
Lahne, J., Trubek, A., & Pelchat, M. L. (2014). Consumer sensory perception of cheese depends on context: a study using comment analysis and linear mixed models. Food Quality and Preference, 32(C), 184-197. doi: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2013.10.007

Lahne, J., & Trubek, A. (2014). 'A little information excites us.' Consumer sensory experience of Vermont artisan cheese as active practice. Appetite, 78, 129-138. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2014.03.022

Hatch
Consumer sensory perception of Vermont artisan cheese: a mixed-methods approach .

Principal Investigator: A. Trubek

Accomplishments & Outputs:
This transdisciplinary research project investigates sensory perception and evaluation of Vermont artisan cheese. Many of the attributes that seem critical to the consumer experience of local products of small-scale agriculture, whether a food is artisanal, sustainable, produced locally or by hand, etc, are just the type of properties sensory scientists tend to define as extrinsic properties. A mounting body of evidence demonstrates that many kinds of extrinsic properties play significant roles in sensory perception. In pursuant to the project objectives, we conducted a study of consumer sensory perception of Vermont artisan cheese. We sampled 182 consumers, and collected affective and descriptive data. We demonstrated that there are connections between personal and social contexts, production information, liking, and perception; this confirmed our overall hypothesis that sensory experience is social experience, and must be understood through a mixed-methods approach that integrates sensory science and social theory. We were also able to generate useful sensory descriptions of cheeses using novel sensory methodologies. This accomplishes objectives 1-3 of the Hatch research project, and paves the way for further research using these methodologies to broaden and elucidate the current findings. During this time we also initiated the research for objective 4 of the project: Use qualitative research methods to understand the role of cheese professionals in building social networks around Vermont artisan cheese and relate this data to the already extant dataset on consumer experiences. First, we did ethnographic research with cheese professionals in the Vermont artisan cheese network. This involved working directly with several cheese retail professionals, allowing for firsthand knowledge of what kinds of specialized knowledge about Vermont cheese they transmit to customers, how they employ narratives or cheese stories to communicate this information to customers, what types of relationships they have with Vermont producers, and how they get this information from Vermont producers. The new knowledge gained from ethnographic observation was used to design a social network survey for Vermont artisan cheesemakers. The questionnaire, which was distributed via email. The data collected using this survey formed the basis for a social network showing, among other things, the density of the Vermont artisan cheese distribution network and which retailer nodes appear to be central to the functioning and vibrancy of this network. A report based on the findings of the social network analysis of cheesemakers and cheesemongers was written and then disseminated to stakeholders in the Vermont artisan cheese community, including the Vermont Artisan Cheese Council.

Lahne, J., & Trubek, A. (2014). 'A little information excites us.' Consumer sensory experience of Vermont artisan cheese as active practice. Appetite, 78, 129-138. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2014.03.022

Vermont Agency of Agriculture, Food, and Markets
Characterization of Methane-Producing Microorganisms in Dairy Cow Waste Anaerobic Digesters .

Principal Investigator: A. Wright

Accomplishments & Outputs:
Anaerobic digestion on farm involves the decomposition of manure into effluent and methane. The production of methane is often the rate limiting step of anaerobic digestion of organic wastes due to the fast growth of bacteria, which produce all the substrates for the slow-growing methanogens. However, high concentrations of volatile fatty acids, salts, ammonia, and heavy metals can also be inhibitory for methanogens and are the most common reasons for digesters to fail, or not reach their full potential. Similarly, within the anaerobic digesters sulfate reducing bacteria compete with methanogens for hydrogen and, in the process, produce hydrogen sulfide, which is a major problem in these reactors. Reducing the numbers and/or activity of the sulfate reducing bacteria may increase methane production and reduce hydrogen sulfide and subsequent corrosion within these digesters. Specific Aims are to: (a) examine the molecular diversity of bacteria and methane-producing archaea (i.e. methanogens) within each of three digesters (Green Mountain Dairy, Blue Spruce Farms, Chaput Family Farms) to assure a good representation of the microbiome; (b) exan1ine the molecular diversity of the sulphate reducing bacteria within each digester to identify the bacteria responsible for hydrogen-sulfide corrosion; (c) determine the density of the methanogenic archaea, protozoa and bacteria in a variety of locations and depths within each digester using real time PCR; (d) correlate the gas production in vitro to the abundance and/or activity of the methanogens and other key microbes found; and (e) identify probable synergistic relationships within the anaerobic digesters and suggest a possible strategy to increase methane production.

Publications:
St-Pierre, B. & A-D.G. Wright. 2014. High-throughput sequencing investigation of bacterial and methanogen diversity in anaerobic manure digesters. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. Impact Factor: 3.95. In Review

St-Pierre, B. & A-D.G. Wright. 2014. Comparative metagenomic analysis of bacterial populations in three full-scale mesophilic anaerobic manure digesters. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 98: 2709-2717. Impact Factor: 3.81

St-Pierre, B. & A-D.G. Wright. 2013. Metagenomic analysis of methanogen populations in three full-scale mesophilic anaerobic manure digesters operated on dairy farms in Vermont, USA. Bioresource Technology. 138: 277-284. Impact Factor: 5.17.

Central Vermont Public Service Corporation
Study of the Mechanisms of Methane Production in Farm Based Anaerobic Digesters by Analyzing Microbial Community Gene Expression .

Principal Investigator: A. Wright

Accomplishments & Outputs:
The purpose of our project is to study the mechanisms of methane production in farm based anaerobic digesters by analyzing microbial community gene expression. We propose to identify the genes that are expressed or used by methanogens and their competitors from the sampled digesters. Methane producing organisms have approximately 2,000 genes, and each gene is responsible for a specific function that allows the microorganism to either grow, maintain itself, produce specific chemicals, protect itself against unfavorable conditions or change its environment. A microorganism only expresses or uses a gene if it needs its function, otherwise the gene is not expressed. Therefore, identifying the genes that are expressed in a cell can reveal a great deal of information about it: 1. if it is under favorable conditions or under stress, 2. what chemicals it is using or producing, 3. how it is responding to its current conditions, and 4. how it is changing its environment With high-throughput sequencing and computing technology, it is possible to analyze not just the genes that are expressed in a specific type of cell, but also in an entire community of microorganisms, such as those found in a manure digester. Therefore, combining the identification of the microbes that are in a digester with the identification of the genes that they use will tell us, which microbes are desirable in a digester, and which should be eliminated, and what conditions are favorable or unfavorable for each type of microbe. This information should provide us with specific short term and long term strategies to improve digester efficiency. Pyrosequencing of the samples has resulted in 200 million sequences which are currently being analyzed.

Agricultural Research Service/Department of Agriculture
Development of an Infrared Thermogram (IRT) Based Screening Tool for Cattle .

Principal Investigator: A. Wright

Accomplishments & Outputs:
Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is one of the most significant animal diseases affecting trade. Its introduction into previously FMD free countries has had devastating economic, social and environmental impacts and its eradication often requires mass slaughter of millions of animals. Early identification of animals infected with FMD virus is vital if disease outbreaks are to be rapidly diagnosed and controlled. Animals with FMD often develop fever during the early period of the disease, and the vesicular lesions that occur are associated with local inflammation giving rise to an increase in skin temperature. Thermal imaging has been used to record surface temperatures in animals for different animal infectious diseases. Previous work with animals experimentally infected with FMD virus has suggested that the technique might be used to identify animals in the early stages of disease, before clinical signs (vesicles) are noted. This project is aimed at providing the scientific evidence to determine the feasibility of IRT as a screening tool to detect suspected FMDV infected cattle in field conditions.

Vermont Agency of Agriculture, Food, and Markets
Investigation of Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria and Production of Hydrogen Sulfide in Anaerobic Manure Digesters .

Principal Investigator: A. Wright

Accomplishments & Outputs:
Sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB) are prokaryotic microorganisms that utilize sulfate (SO4) as a terminal electron acceptor during the final steps of their energy metabolism. The sulfate is not assimilated, but transformed into hydrogen sulfide (H2S), which is released from the interior of the bacterial cell to the environment. SRB are found in a wide variety of bacterial evolutionary lineages, with more than 220 known species, distributed amongst 60 genera. While all SRBs require sulfate and use the same enzymatic pathway to transform it into hydrogen sulfide, each species requires its own unique combination of environmental conditions, such as pH, salinity and availability of a carbon source. The nature of the carbon source can vary greatly, ranging from large polymers such as lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates, to smaller metabolites such as propionate and acetate.
SRB are found in many natural environments, such as in marine sediments and the gastrointestinal tract of animals, where they play essential roles in their respective microbial ecosystems. They are also being developed as a biotechnological tool for the bioremediation of mine drainage. However, SRB activity has negative effects in other circumstances. Hydrogen sulfide can be a serious health hazard, and it is a potent bio-corrosion agent. In anaerobic digesters, particularly when manure is used as the main substrate as is the case on Vermont farms, elevated levels of hydrogen sulfide cause severe damage to metal parts, which results in significant financial losses when costly components such as engines are affected. Various options are available for remediation of H2S that vary in cost and efficiency. For anaerobic digesters operated on farms, two main approaches are typically considered: sulfides can be precipitated with ferric or ferrous iron inside the digester or they can be transformed into elemental sulfur by the injection of air into the digester. Some systems that perform biological treatment using species and strains of the genus Thiobacillus can also be used, but they typically require large investments in new equipment as well as maintenance.
Considering the impact of H2S on digester operations, there is surprisingly little information on the SRB species that are present in anaerobic digesters and the conditions that affect their metabolic activity. It is most likely for this reason that current treatments do not target SRBs or the metabolic pathway that produces H2S but rather aim at reducing levels of H2S by transforming it into less reactive chemicals. A better understanding of SRB species and their physiology in digesters is essential for improving and developing better strategies to curb H2S production.

Hatch
Examination of the methanogen microbiome in five breeds of lactating dairy cows .

Principal Investigator: A. Wright

Accomplishments & Outputs:
Holsteins and Jerseys are the most commonly used breeds in the US Dairy Industry. They differ in performance for various traits, such as body size, milk production and composition. With increased concerns about the impact of agriculture on climate change, potential differences for other traits such as methane emission also need to be further characterized from Holsteins and Jerseys, as well as other popular dairy breeds. Since methane is produced in the rumen by methanogens, preliminary data from our laboratory suggest that differences in the methanogen population exist between Jerseys and Holsteins. Here, we propose a more in depth study to confirm these findings and to include Guernseys. Pyrosequences of rumen methanogens from each breed will be generated and analyzed to identify rumen methanogens and to determine if their population structures vary significantly. Real-time PCR will also be performed to estimate the mean methanogen density for each breed. If significant differences are found, then head boxes may be used to measure methane production. These data will make a significant contribution to our understanding of the effect of breed differences on the rumen microbiota, which may lead to new strategies for the US Dairy Industry. The objectives are to: (1)identify the methane producing methanogenic archaea (methanogens) in Holsteins, Jerseys, Holstein-Jersey crosses, and Guernseys using pyrosequencing; and to (2) identify and assess the diversity and structure of the methanogen population in in Holsteins, Jerseys, Holstein-Jersey crosses, and Guernsey lactating dairy cows.

Hatch
Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms of Glucose Transporters as Breed Selection Markers for Milk Productivity in Dairy Cattle .

Principal Investigator: F. Zhao

Accomplishments & Outputs:
The specific aim of this project was to analyze the associations of polymorphisms of glucose transporters (mainly GLUT1, the predominant GLUT isoform expressed in bovine mammary gland) with milk production traits in Holstein cows. We have carried out substantial work on the project, summerized below: a) We have collected blood samples from 1500 cows on 5 local farms (Nordic, Fairmont, Foster Brothers, Knoxland, and Newmont Farms) and obtained the production data and breed values from the DHIA for each individual cows. b) We have isolated genomic DNA from each blood sample. c) At first, DNA of 5 cows with highest breeding value and 5 cows with lowest breeding value was selected from each farm and these 50 DNA samples were mixed together. We amplified and sequenced 2kb promoter and the individual exon sequences (Exon 1 to Exon 10) and their flanking regions of bovine GLUT1 using the DNA pool. Only one SNP on exon 2 was found in our samples, which is a C/T synonymous SNP and is consistent with the SNP rs208845183 in the NCBI SNP database. This SNP does not change the amino acid sequence of GLUT1 protein, thus, it may not have much physiological significance and we did not genotype this SNP in our cows. We were not able to detect any other SNPs, including three expected missense SNPs found in NCBI SNP database: rs133236740, rs134711046 and rs135388257 on exon 6. These SNPs are of most interest because they change consecutive 2 amino acids of GLUT1 protein. d) We thought the mixing 50 cows' DNA might dilute the DNA samples with SNPs, so next we mixed DNA samples of 5 cows with highest breeding value and 5 cows with lowest breeding value from each individual farm and sequenced each exon sequence from the DNA pool of each of 5 farms. Similarly, only SNP rs208845183 was detected from these smaller DNA pools. e) To further check the possibility that our DNA pools may miss low frequency SNPs, we next decided to focus on SNPs of rs133236740, rs134711046 and rs135388257 on exon 6 in big number of cows. Primers were designed for each SNP and 500 cows from different farms were genotyped for these 3 SNPs by Tm-shift method. For each SNP, 2 forward allele-specific primers and 1 common reverse primer were designed. Each of the 2 forward primers contains a 3'-terminal base that corresponds to one of the two SNP allelic variants. GC rich tails with different length were attached to the 5' of the 2 forward primers. PCR products from these 2 forward primers can be distinguished by a melting curve on a real-time PCR machine because they have distinct Tm. 500 cows were genotyped for 3 SNPs but they all have the same genotype. f) To investigate whether these 3 SNPs are breed-specific, we sequenced exon 6 of 8 Jerseys DNA samples. We did not find any cows carrying the SNP. g) To further identify the possible SNPs of bovine GLUT1 gene in our cow population, we are sequecing all bGLUT1 exon sequences in 90 cows using Illumina Custom Amplicon Preparation Kit and MiSeq. When missense or nonsense mutations are dectected, we will genotype all our cow samples and analyze for their associations with milk production traits.

Publications:
1. Feng-Qi Zhao. (2014). Biology of glucose transport in the mammary gland (invited review). Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and Neoplasia 19(1), 3-17.

2. Yong Shao, and Feng-Qi Zhao. (2014). Emerging evidence of the physiological role of hypoxia in mammary development and lactation (invited review). Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology 5(January), 9.

Hatch
Regulation of glucose production and utilization in dairy cattle .

Principal Investigator: F. Zhao

Accomplishments & Outputs:
The aims of the project are to study the regulation of i) hepatic gluconeogenesis, ii) glucose utilization in lactose synthesis in the mammary gland, and iii) glucose uptake in skeletal muscle by lactogenic hormones and control of substrate availability in vitro. In the first year of the project, we have studied the mechanisms of the regulation of glucose uptake and the gene expression of glucose transporters, GLUT1 and GLUT8, by insulin in bovine mammary epithelial cells (BMEC) in collaborations with Dr. Jianxin Liu of the Zhejiang University of China. We have found that 1) insulin-induced glucose uptake in BMECs may involve the phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase- but not mitogen-activated protein kinase-mediated signaling pathways; and 2) Protein kinase C (PKC) is involved in the regulation of glucose uptake by BMEC, and this function may work, at least partly, through upregulating the expression of GLUT1 and GLUT8.

Publications:
1. Ke Zhao, Hong-Yun Liu, Feng-Qi Zhao, and Jian-Xin Liu. (2014). Short communication: Protein kinase C regulates glucose uptake and mRNA expression of GLUT1 and GLUT8 in lactating bovine mammary epithelial cells. Journal of Dairy Science 97, 4329-4332.

2. Ke Zhao, Hong-Yun Liu, Miao-Miao Zhou, Feng-Qi Zhao, and Jian-Xin Liu. (2014). Insulin stimulates glucose uptake via a PI3-K-linked signaling pathway in bovine mammary epithelial cells. Journal of Dairy Science 97, 3660-3665.

3. Yong Shao, Theresa L. Wellman, Karen M. Lounsbury, and Feng-Qi Zhao. (2014). Differential regulation of GLUT1 and GLUT8 expression by hypoxia in mammary epithelial cells. American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 307, R237-R247.

23 projects 1b - Maple

Hatch/MultiState
Biological Control of Arthropod Pests and Weeds .

Principal Investigator: B. Parker

Accomplishments & Outputs:
In spring 2014 the sites in each of the USDA plant coldhardiness zones (3-5) tested were visited and nets to prevent deer browse over winter were removed. August measurements for Acer mono test trees included: crown condition, dieback, pest damage, the presence or absence of root sprouts and their condition were taken. In the fall, each survey site was again visited, and netting re-applied. The following data were recorded as in past years: caliper diameter at 5.08 cm from the ground, average new growth, crown condition, dieback, tree height, pest damage and notes on flowering or seed production. Because of the netting and stem guards, little or no deer browse was evident and rodent damage did not occur during the winter of 2013/2014. Winter mortality has been greatest in locations within USDA plant coldhardiness zone 3. Most of the test trees that suffered severe dieback to the base of the stem over the winter sprouted from the roots by mid-summer creating a bushy appearance. The average sprout height among the 20 trees that produced root sprouts in zone 3 was 32.13 cm. Dr. Michael Smith, USDA, reported ALB was more attracted to trees that were short and bushy than taller trees with a single trunk. Therefore, the sprouts on test trees were left in place as this may provide a more suitable form for a trap plant. Overall weather conditions during the spring and summer of 2014 were thought to be good for tree growth, i.e., sufficient rainfall and no late frost. No additional trees died over the summer. None of the trees flowered or produced samaras. Data are being analyzed to determine growth patterns relative to coldhardiness zone. An ALB infestation was found in Amityville, NY in 2014. This provided an opportunity to assess the potential of sentinel trees as a monitoring tool. Thirty Acer mono trees were planted in grow-bags with soil containing a water absorbent material (hydrogel), and taken to the Amityville USDA APHIS Office in June 2014. APHIS personnel placed the trees at 6 locations near infestation hot spots and monitored them for ALB over the summer. Their effectiveness to survive and detect ALB continues to be evaluated. To further evaluate the invasive potential of Acer mono , in fall, 2013 seeds were field collected at two sites in southern New England and tested for germination at one site in each coldhardiness zone. Fifty seeds each were placed into burlap bags and then into rodent-proof screen cages on the ground and left over the winter. In the spring the cages were collected and seeds were placed in Petri dishes with moist toweling and incubated at room temperature. Germination was recorded after 2 wks. Results indicate that all seed sources were viable prior to field testing. Only seeds located in zone 3 germinated, indicating that low temperatures did not reduce seed viability. While cold temperature may have affected viability, anecdotal observation suggested that soil at the zone 3 sites retained moisture and received heavy snow cover, while soil at the other two sites was sandy, water retention was minimal. Snow cover at the zone 4 and 5 sites was also likely less than at the zone 3 site.

Hatch
Long-Term Effects of Sap Extraction on Sugar Maple Growth and Health .

Principal Investigator: T. Perkins

Accomplishments & Outputs:
This project examines whether removal of sap though the maple sugaring process effects the health and growth of trees. By comparing trees that have not been tapped with those that have been tapped with either gravity or vacuum collection methods, we can determine the impact of carbohydrate removal on trees. In this first year of study, 90 mature maple trees that had never been tapped were selected and randomly assigned to one of the three treatment groups. Sap collection was conducted during the spring sugaring season. Sap volume in the "gravity" treatment was approximately half that of the "vacuum" treatment.

North American Maple Syrup Council
Identification of Effective Maple Tubing Cleaning Practices .

Principal Investigator: A. van den Berg

Accomplishments & Outputs:
Microbial contamination of the tubing collection system reduces annual yields of sap from maple trees by an average of 10% annually. Annual cleaning of tubing systems is a method by which maple producers attempt to mitigate these yield reductions. A wide variety of cleaning techniques are currently used for this process, including rinsing the system with pressurized air and water, or with solutions such as peroxide or bleach. However, the effectiveness of these cleaning techniques at increasing annual sap yield is currently unknown. In fact, it is possible that many of these practices have limited effects on yield, and thus by employing them, producers could be wasting substantial amounts of money, time, and other resources each year. Since it is estimated that over 87% of producers currently use some method of tubing cleaning, it is imperative to determine which of these methods is most effective at preventing significant annual reductions in sap yield. This will enable producers to increase their annual revenues by employing a cleaning method with an established ability to improve annual sap yield, and/or by eliminating expenditures on the use of ineffective cleaning practices. Thus, the overall objective of this study is to determine which tubing cleaning practice, if any, results in the greatest increase in sap yield relative to the yield obtained when no cleaning treatment is used.
To accomplish this objective, generally, a field experiment was conducted to quantify the volume of sap collected from tubing systems treated with three cleaning techniques identified as most effective at reducing microbial populations through preliminary screening experiments, and the volume of sap collected will be compared to that of control systems which are not cleaned. Preliminary experiments identified bleach, peroxide, and isopropyl alcohol (IPA) as potentially effective treatments. Research plots were established, and sap yield data from treatment plots were collected in the spring 2014 maple production season. Data analysis is ongoing, but preliminary results indicate that tubing cleaned with bleach and isopropyl alcohol yielded significantly greater quantities of sap than control tubing that was not cleaned. However, financial analyses are ongoing to determine whether the value of the increases in sap yield were greater than the costs of implementing the cleaning treatments.
Results to date have been presented to maple producers and industry members in presentations at the North American Maple Syrup Council and International Maple Syrup Institute Annual Conference in Wolfville, Nova Scotia (October 23, 2014), and at the Leader Evaporator Open House (April 2014). A technical research article will be prepared and published in the industry journal The Maple Digest, and additional presentations will be given to maple producers and industry members at other conferences and meetings, including the January 2015 UVM Extension Maple Conferences.

Hatch
Investigation of a new paradigm in maple syrup production .

Principal Investigator: T. Vogelmann

Accomplishments & Outputs:
Vermont's maple producers face increasing challenges to maintaining economically sustainable operations. Rising fuel prices and costs to implement the practices necessary to meet consumer demands for heightened assurance of product safety and quality have rapidly increased the cost of producing maple syrup. Without corresponding increases in productivity, these costs must be passed on to consumers in order to avoid significant reductions in annual income. It is thus imperative to find ecologically sustainable mechanisms to increase the productivity of maple production operations to enable producers to continue to thrive and provide an affordable, high quality product to consumers. The objective of this project is to investigate whether novel strategies of maple crop management can provide mechanisms to increase the productivity of maple production operations, and thus help maintain the long-term economic sustainability of maple syrup production operations in Vermont.
We completed the third year of a multi-year experiment to determine the quantity of sugar that can be extracted annually using alternative systems of maple crop management. During the 2014 maple production season, sap was collected and sugar extraction quantified from trees tapped with three alternative systems of maple crop management. The experiment will be repeated during the 2015 and 2016 production seasons, and the data from all study years will be used to calculate the average quantity of sugar extracted annually from trees of each treatment, and to determine which treatment yielded the highest production of sugar. As the experiment is ongoing, there are no data to report at this time.
General information and preliminary results from this research have been presented to maple producers and industry members at a variety of conferences and meetings, including the 2014 NY State Maple Conference, three January 2014 UVM Extension Maple Conferences, numerous 2014 maple open-house meetings, and the 2014 North American Maple Syrup Council and International Maple Syrup Institute Annual Conference in Wolfville, Nova Scotia.

4 projects 1c - Livestock (other than dairy cows) and Poultry

Hatch/MultiState
National Animal Genome Research Program .

Principal Investigator: S. McKay

Accomplishments & Outputs:
Methylation is an epigenetic modification of DNA that regulates gene transcription and may influence variation in economically important phenotypes in agricultural species. We are working towards generating a comprehensive survey of methylation in the bovine brain and investigating differential methylation between two groups of cattle with extreme measures of docility. Brains from six cattle (3 high and 3 low docility) have been dissected and nine functionally distinct regions of the brain have been harvested. Harvested brain regions include the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, amygdala, hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, dorsal raphe, hypothalamus, periaqueductal gray, cingulate cygrus and nucleus accumbens. Our primary objective is to generate a map of the bovine brain methylome. Towards that end, we have measured global DNA methylation levels for each of the nine brain regions harvested from each of the six cattle. Brain regions with significant differences in global DNA methylation levels between groups of cattle will undergo next generation sequencing. Within the next year we expect to generate libraries for methyl binding domain sequencing (MBD-Seq). This method of next generation sequencing will be utilized to determine the genomic locations for methylation in brain regions for each of six cattle. Subsequently, analysis will be undertaken to determine the extent of methylation in each brain region. The data generated thus far has been accepted for a poster presentation at the 23rd annual Plant and Animal Genome Meeting in San Diego, California.

1 projects 1d - Fruits and Vegetables

National Institute of Food and Agriculture/Department of Agriculture
Using ""New"" Alternatives to Enhance Adoption of Organic Apple Production Through Integrated Research and Extension .

Principal Investigator: L. Berkett

Accomplishments & Outputs:
Apples are an important component of New England's diversified agriculture. Although there is significant interest in organic production, there are very few organic apple orchards in New England, in part, because of the challenges associated with the traditional apple cultivar grown (McIntosh). However, because of recent shifts in consumer preference for newer cultivars, growers are planting different apple cultivars. Growers want to know what the potential is for sustainable and profitable organic production with the newer apple cultivars that are being planted in the region. This project holistically examines the opportunities and challenges of organic production within the two major orchard systems growers are using to change to new cultivars and with five of the top apple cultivars that growers identified as important to the future of the industry. Specific project goals and the accomplishments during the past year were: 1. Continue to evaluate new apple cultivars and incorporate research-generated knowledge of apple ecosystem dynamics into organic production systems to determine sustainability and profitability. Field data on tree growth, fruit yield and quality, and disease and pest incidence on fruit and foliage were collected on all cultivars in two OrganicA research orchards. These data were included into the overall dataset for the project to continue to assess cultivar performance under organic management. Cumulative, long-term yield, fruit quality, and pest incidence data will be used to determine overall profitability of the cultivars under the two systems used in the project. 2. Continue to collaboratively develop and implement with stakeholders a multi-dimensional extension program that addresses their priorities and needs, enables whole farm planning, improves competitiveness, and enhances the ability of growers to grow and market high quality organic apples. A multi-dimensional extension program continued to provide stakeholders with organic apple information that included on-site visits, orchard tours, newsletter articles, websites, and grower meetings. Organic apple production information and research summaries were distributed to diverse audiences which included commercial apple growers, scientists, extension personnel, industry personnel, undergraduate and graduate students and the general public in the region. A complete writeup of the project will be presented in early 2015 as Ph.D. dissertation of project collaborator T. Bradshaw and through associated published articles in relevant journals.

Publications:
Bradshaw, T. Organic Tree Fruit Production in New England, Chapter 2, In: 2014 New England Tree Fruit Management Guide (ed. Cooley, D.). Coop. Extension of Systems of CT, ME, MA, NH, RI, and VT.

Cornell University
Northern Grapes: Integrating Viticulture, Winemaking, and Marketing of New Cold-Hardy Cultivars Supporting New and Growing Wineries .

Principal Investigator: L. Berkett

Accomplishments & Outputs:
The emergence of cold hardy, Vitis riparia-based wine grape cultivars in the 1990s created a new and rapidly expanding industry of small vineyard and winery enterprises (over 300 wineries, 3,300 acres of grapes, 1300 growers) in more than 12 states in New England, northern New York, and the Upper Midwest, boosting rural economies in those regions. While the North American ancestry of these cultivars confers exceptional climatic adaptation (surviving as low as -40 degrees C) and disease resistance, other challenges to production, processing, and marketing slow their successful commercialization in regional and national markets. Because their growth habit and fruit composition differ from traditional, cold-tender V. vinifera-based hybrids, new viticultural and enological practices are needed. Marketing tools are also required to educate consumers unfamiliar with the grapes and the wine styles they produce. Consequently, the long-term viability of these new businesses depends on coordinated research and extension to optimize viticultural, enological (winemaking), business management, and marketing practices. To meet the needs articulated by industry stakeholders, this project used a holistic systems approach, integrating the SCRI focus areas of production, distribution and processing, and consumers and markets. Ultimately, this research will help producers overcome production and marketing constraints and increase the profitability and sustainability of emerging cold climate grape and wine industries in the Midwest and Northeast. UVM researchers participated in the following objectives: Objective 1: Support increased utilization of the germplasm represented by new V. riparia-based cold-climate cultivars and selections by characterizing their performance and resulting fruit and wine flavor attributes in different climates throughout the Northeast and upper Midwest. UVM researchers evaluated cultivar performance and fruit composition at an existing NE-1020 trial located at the UVM Hort Farm.
Objective 2: Develop and optimize viticultural practices that allow sustained production of high quality fruit from cold-climate cultivars. UVM researchers developed disease management strategies that take into account relative disease resistance, copper and sulfur sensitivity, and the unique prevalence of Anthracnose in cold climate cultivars through assessment of cultivar susceptibility to important diseases.
Research results were disseminated to stakeholders through presentations at industry meetings (2013 New England Vegetable and Fruit Conference, 2012-2014 VT Grape & Wine Council Annual Meetings, 2012-2014 open houses, summer tours, and student tours of research vineyard; total audience ~1000), email newsletters (255 subscribers), and UVM Fruit website (www.uvm.edu/~fruit).
Continued research through funded grants by new PI Terence Bradshaw will evaluate winegrape cultivars for horticultural and disease incidence characteristics in a mature vineyard through 2017.

Publications:
Berkett, L.P, Bradshaw, T.L., Kingsley-Richards, S.L., and M.C. Griffith. 2014. Disease evaluation of selected cold climate wine grape cultivars in Vermont, USA. IOBC-WPRS Bulletin 105:29-33.

Hatch/MultiState
Multi-State Evaluation of Winegrape Cultivars and Clones .

Principal Investigator: L. Berkett

Accomplishments & Outputs:
Cold climate wine grape production is an emerging new food system in Vermont and the region offering exciting value-added and agri-tourism economic opportunities. A key challenge to this young industry is the selection of wine grape cultivars which will consistently produce high quality fruit under our variable environmental conditions. High quality fruit is the basis for quality wine production. This project is evaluating viticultural and Integrated Pest Management (IPM) characteristics of new cold climate wine grape cultivars and is part of a national research project (NE1020). This past growing season was the fifth year of grape production in the research vineyard containing six wine grape varieties which was planted at the University of Vermont Horticultural Research Center. Observations and data were collected in the vineyard throughout the growing season and at harvest to determine differences between the varieties. Standard research protocols including those established by the NE1020 technical committee were used. Results and observations were distributed to growers through a newsletter and website. Over 250 people enrolled to receive project information via email and the total number of visits to the cold climate wine grape production website totaled over 6,459. In addition, research results were presented at scientific meetings in the United States and in Europe.
Research results were disseminated to stakeholders through presentations at industry meetings (2013 New England Vegetable and Fruit Conference, 2012-2014 VT Grape & Wine Council Annual Meetings, 2012-2014 open houses, summer tours, and student tours of research vineyard; total audience ~1000), email newsletters (255 subscribers), and UVM Fruit website (www.uvm.edu/~fruit).
Continued research through funded grants by new PI Terence Bradshaw will evaluate winegrape cultivars for horticultural and disease incidence characteristics in a mature vineyard through 2017.

Vermont Agency of Agriculture, Food, and Markets
Improved Technical Support Programming for Vermont Apple Growers .

Principal Investigator: T. Bradshaw

Accomplishments & Outputs:
Apples are an important specialty crop in Vermont, with 2800 acres of orchards, average farmgate sales of $12 million annually, and an estimated $20 million in total value to the Vermont agricultural economy. At a March 2013 Strategic Planning Summit for apple growers and industry support organizations, participants identified a need for improved access to timely, scientifically accurate production information. At that meeting, growers also identified difficulty with accessing information from other UVM Extension providers, including information on business management, food safety, and farm equipment and infrastructure engineering. A 2013 evaluation by Vermont apple growers of the UVM Apple Program website, developed in the early 1990s with no significant site upgrade performed since then, found that 64% of growers access the site, but 57% rated the site usefulness as 3 or lower where 1= not useful and 5= very useful. Through this project we developed a comprehensive communications platform (www.uvm.edu/~fruit, http://blog.uvm.edu/fruit/) for dissemination of horticultural, pest management, and risk management information to Vermont apple growers through redesign of the University of Vermont (UVM) Apple Program website (orchard.uvm.edu). This redesign adapted the site for modern computer and mobile platforms and incorporate an interactive grower email list, social media, and blog formats that will facilitate improved access to site content and collaboration between growers and researchers. This communications platform will serve as the primary means of content delivery for present and future projects of the UVM Apple Program, and will serve as an important infrastructure component for growers to access production-related information that will enhance farm profitability and sustainability. Unique views of the blog totaled 1,336 from April 1-October 31, 2014. In that time, a total of 63 posts were published that delivered timely crop-specific horticulture, pest management, and risk management information to growers. The new UVM Fruit website (www.uvm.edu/~fruit) logged 5,328 total site hits in the same period. In addition, the former UVM apple site received 3,809 total web hits, and the old UVM Vineyard site 3,095 hits during that period. Stakeholders appear to be accessing information from both old and new websites, likely due to bookmarked links and search engine results pointing to the historic site. Traffic to the new sites was promoted through presentation to growers at annual industry meetings and postings to 514 total subscribers on four stakeholder email lists. Site traffic will be assessed in comparison to historic program sites and stakeholders will be polled in winter 2014-2015 at industry meetings to assess effectiveness of the communications platform.

Cornell University
NE IPM Small Fruit Working Group .

Principal Investigator: A. Hazelrigg

Accomplishments & Outputs:
The purpose of the project is to develop a current Strawberry Pest Management Strategic Plan with input from growers, researchers, crop consultants and extension professionals from the northeast. This plan will outline the major disease, arthropod and weed pests for June-bearing and day neutral strawberries with the management options based on IPM practices. Organic and conventional systems will be included. The participants have been contacted regarding the meeting and are currently providing input on the pests and diseases for the crop. The meeting to further develop the plan with all participants' input will be held in Vermont in December 2014. After that meeting, the plan and recommendations will be finalized and sent to participants for review in winter 2015. After revisions, the final document will be shared with participants, NE IPM center, USDA and strawberry growers throughout the northeast. This document will also be of interest to strawberry growers and researchers/extension in the upper midwest. We will disseminate the information to our stakeholders through newsletters, meetings and one on one consultations in the following year.

5 projects 1e - Ornamental Horticulture

Vermont Agency of Agriculture, Food, and Markets
An Emerging Problem for Vermont Christmas Tree Growers: Root Aphids .

Principal Investigator: B. Parker

Accomplishments & Outputs:
Root aphids have become a problem in Christmas tree production. Infested seedlings are stunted, chlorotic and susceptible to root rot. They slow tree growth, delay maturity and impact revenues. In the past growers have relied on imidocloprid insecticides for management. The goal of this project is to determine the species of aphids infesting Christmas trees and evaluate the efficacy of releasing the commercially-available soil dwelling predatory mite Stratiolaelaps scimitus, (formerly Hypoaspis miles). Aphid specimens were sent to the USDA for identification, but a definitive species id could not be made. Specimens were then sent to Dr. Colin Favret, an ant specialist in Quebec, CA, and the species was confirmed as Prociphilus americanus, conifer root aphid (CRA). Little is known about this group of aphids, including its life cycle or alternate hosts. The original plan was to release S. scimitus around infested trees in the spring. However, problems with our original research site due to flooding and subsequent tree mortality led to the need to find another research site. A location in northwestern Vermont was found in the summer 2013 where heavy root aphid populations occurred. A method to calculate aphid populations was developed using a grid-count technique. A predatory mite treatment was made in October 2013. The trees were dug up and evaluated using the grid-count technique in October 2014. Our results indicate a significant reduction in CRA on the trees treated with mites compared to the control trees. A second replication will be conducted on additional trees located within the same general area of the study area in October 2014 using the predatory mite and the addition of a third treatment using an entomopathogenic fungi (Beauvaria bassiana strain GHA). Results to date were disseminated to members of the Vermont/New Hampshire Christmas Tree Growers Association, and will be shared with growers throughout New England in the future. This research will demonstrate to growers the potential of biological control for root aphids in Christmas tree plantations.

New Hampshire Plant Growers Association
Optimizing the Ecological Value of Ornamental Perennials: An Evaluation of Nectar and Pollen Production in Open-Pollinated Native Flowers versus Native Cultivars .

Principal Investigator: L. Perry

Accomplishments & Outputs:
During the first season of data collection (2013), the flowering plants were monitored to determine the mean rate of pollinator visits. Of the 14 native plant pairs (straight species vs. nativar) being evaluated, five pairs did not supply sufficient data either due to a slow rate of establishment or high winter kill. These pairs are being monitored in the 2014 field season. Of the nine pairs evaluated, and with sufficient data to analyze, six of the native cultivars attracted significantly fewer native bee pollinators than the straight species. (Two additional Echinacea purpurea cultivars also attracted significantly fewer native bee pollinators than the species.) There was no significant difference in pollinator visits in two of the pairs. One native cultivar, Veronicastrum virginicum Lavender Towers attracted significantly more native bee pollinators than the straight species. Additionally, significant differences in bloom time, bloom duration, plant height, flowers per plant, and flower color were observed. This preliminary data suggests that many native cultivars exhibit different characteristics than the true native equivalents, attracting (and offering floral rewards) to a different, and often smaller, set of pollinators. If using a cultivar of a native plant in a garden with the goal of maximizing floral rewards for pollinators, the best bet is to choose a cultivar that is closest in color and stature to the true native.

Hatch
Herbaceous Perennial Hardiness .

Principal Investigator: L. Perry

Accomplishments & Outputs:
Many retail and wholesale nurseries grow herbaceous perennials, and many such growers in northern climates need to successfully overwinter plants either in production, or held from the previous year, in overwintering structures such as greenhouses. Results from hardiness studies will help them overwinter plants at colder temperatures, or group them by temperatures needed for optimum survival. Such results will result in significant economic savings in both fuel and plant losses, and from less fuel usage there will be less climate impact. Results are being shared in presentations, grower articles, and online (perrysperennials.info). In addition to producers, northern retailers need to know which of the many new introductions perform well in the field in cold climates during the growing season, and survive overwinter. Field trials of coralbells, coneflowers, and ornamental grasses in USDA zone 4a are addressing these needs with these major groups being grown and sold. One of the issues growers face during winter is the fluctuation of temperatures in greenhouses during sunny periods, warming considerably in day and dropping to quite cold at night. Previous studies with such fluctuating temperatures with two species showed differences between two species. Becky Shasta daisy only survived at higher subsequent freezing temperatures (-2 or -5C) no matter the deacclimation (warming daytime) treatment, while Route 66 coreopsis showed little effect from deacclimation treatment or subsequent freezing levels. Based on this, studies this year with that coreopsis will look at longer deacclimation intervals of either 5 or 10 days at a steady 16C, or alternating for these days prior to freezing to various levels (-2, -5, -8, -11, or -14C). Hopefully this will determine a treatment at which plants will deacclimate, in order to perform subsequent studies on what is needed to reacclimate them. Field studies have begun and will be continued for 3 genera, with reduced species after 5 years of trials with coralbells. For the latter, those with best survival and vigor for at least 3 years include Blackout, Dark Secret, Frosted Violet, Mocha, and Silver Lode. Among the 90 or more tested over various time periods, 22 other species rated acceptable to excellent over at least 3 years. Panicum grass trials are only becoming established, with replacement plants for many cultivars planted this past year. Of the 6 little bluestem cultivars, Blue Heaven has been the highest rated and most attractive in summer and fall after 2 growing seasons and winters. Over 90 coneflowers have been tested over the past 2 seasons, with 55% loss over the 2013-14 winter. Among the top rated to date at flowering time are Green Envy, Coconut Lime, Purity, Happy Star, paradoxa, Fragrant Angel, Prairie Splendor, and Alba. Only Purity, paradoxa, Happy Star and Alba did not need subsequent staking. There were 16 other cultivars that rated excellent at flowering.

American Floral Endowment
Granular Formulations of Insect-Killing Fungi with Plant-Medicated IPM Systems for Thrips .

Principal Investigator: M. Skinner

Accomplishments & Outputs:
This project evaluated a guardian plant system for thrips in spring bedding plants. It used a flowering marigold on which predatory mites (Neoseiulus cucumeris) were released on the flowers and foliage; a millet-based granular formulation of Beauveria bassiana, an insect-killing fungus, mixed into the upper surface of the potting mix; and a thrips pheromone lure attached to a stake. This system is based on the concept that adult thrips are attracted from the crop to the marigolds, where they reproduce. Attractiveness may be enhanced by a pheromone lure. Thrips adults and immatures serve as prey for predatory mites on the flowers and foliage, sustaining mites and encouraging their dispersal throughout the crop. In the absence of thrips, mites feed on marigold pollen. Thrips that escape predation drop to the soil to pupate, where they become infected with the fungus. The granular formulation enables the fungus to colonize the potting mix, thus eliminating the need for reapplication. Trials were conducted at 5 operations in VT; 1 in NH during the springs of 2012-2014. At 3 sites, trials were in single gutter-connected greenhouses. At the other sites, trials were in 3 separate, side-by-side, greenhouses. Each greenhouse contained 6 treatments: 1) marigold with a granular formulation of an experimental strain of B. bassiana incorporated into the upper layer of the potting mix, thrips pheromone lure and predatory mites; 2) marigold with a granular formulation of the B. bassiana GHA strain in the potting mix, thrips lure and predatory mites; 3) marigold with thrips lure only; 4) marigold without thrips lure, fungus or mites; 5) yellow sticky card with thrips lure; and 6) yellow sticky card without lure. For 12 wks marigolds and sticky cards and 3 plants located within 1 m of each marigold were monitored bi-weekly for thrips and other arthropods and damage. At the start and end of the experiment, soil samples were taken to determine the level of fungal inoculum. In all 3 years, over the 12 wk, higher numbers of thrips were detected on marigolds than on random crop plants near the marigolds. At all sites, there was greater damage on the marigolds than on the crop. On many occasions, marigolds without the mite/fungus treatment had over 50 percent foliar damage; whereas nearby crop plants had less than 10 percent damage. There were more thrips on marigolds with no mite/fungus treatment than on those treated with mites and fungi. Both fungal treatments provided similar thrips suppression. Predatory mites and both fungi persisted for over 12 wks, providing a sustained source for biocontrols. Though mites were found in marigolds, they were not found on adjacent crop plants, suggesting that mite dispersal from the marigolds is minimal, or they escaped detection. The lures did not enhance thrips attractiveness of the marigolds or sticky cards. Results demonstrate the effectiveness of the system for reducing thrips numbers and damage. This system could save growers money by providing an ongoing source of biocontrols to suppress thrips over the growing season.

Natural Resources Conservation Service/Department of Agriculture
Innovative Technologies for Energy Conservation in Vermont Greenhouses .

Principal Investigator: M. Skinner

Accomplishments & Outputs:
The goal of this project is to improve the design of a bubble greenhouse insulation system and implement improvements in a demonstration greenhouse. The bubble system insulates hoop houses by injecting soap bubbles between the two plastic layers. The project compares energy savings among greenhouses with a bubble system, an energy curtain and an unimproved house. The objectives are: 1. install and demonstrate a control mechanism to limit the quantity of bubbles injected into the plastic layers; 2. install light sensitive controller on the curtain; and 3. produce and disseminate a video on the bubble and energy curtain insulation systems. The bubble generation mechanism is controlled by a digital timer. We wanted to design and install a device to automatically shut off the system when it was full. Because bubble quality changes depending on the bubble solution concentration and the weather conditions (temperature and humidity), it was difficult to set the timer to maximize on the insulation but not over fill it. We investigated several approaches and discussed the matter with engineers. We tested a system designed by two engineers. Despite these efforts, to date none have worked effectively. A light-sensitive curtain controller was installed and is operating, which assures it closes at the same time as the bubble system starts, making energy consumption comparisons between the two houses more comparable. This system is more dependable than relying on a greenhouse worker to close the curtain. The grower has used the controller in the summer months as well, by making the curtain close at very high solar radiation levels, so it provides shading and cooling. Work continues to produce a short video for growers describing the systems; initial filming was shot and digitized. The bubble system ran from Oct. to Dec. 2013 and Jan. to Apr. 2014, when it was shut down for the season. This is the longest continual period of operation since installation 3 years ago. Energy consumption was compared, showing that the greenhouse with the curtain used 25 percent less than the unimproved house; whereas the greenhouse with the bubble system used 42 percent less. It was found that the energy savings of the bubble and curtain insulation systems are better in the coldest periods. Gas use varied depending on the prevailing winter temperatures; the 2013 winter was considerably milder than 2012 or 2014; and savings in the two energy-improved houses were less that year. The day-long Vermont Greenhouse Energy Extravaganza was held at the test site, featuring sessions by noted experts in energy conservation and demonstrations of the bubble insulation system and energy curtain. Attendees came from all over the Northeast, including New York City, Boston and Israel. Small-group breakout sessions demonstrating the bubble insulation system and energy curtain were held along with talks on topics relating to retrofitting greenhouses to enhance efficiency. A grower-to-grower session featured 3 operators who shared their experiences with greenhouse energy conservation.

Green Works - Vermont Nursery & Landscape Association
IPM for Vermont?s Landscape Industry: A Longterm Investment to Ensure Success .

Principal Investigator: M. Skinner

Accomplishments & Outputs:
The landscape industry represents a diverse array of activities associated with lawn and landscape plant care and property management. This project targets the segment linked with managing plants in golf courses, public parks and greenspaces, and private properties. The responsibilities of this group generally include pest, disease and fertility management of turf and ornamental plants (annuals, perennials, shrubs and trees), and planting, pruning and irrigation. The landscape industry relies heavily on chemical pesticides to manage pests and diseases, which poses significant threats to human health and the environment. Integrated pest management (IPM) such as monitoring for pests, strategic spray regimes and release of biocontrol agents could reduce pesticide use. Landscapers want educational events that direct apply to their operations, but few opportunities exist. Their issues are unique, and programs must be tailored to their needs. Expanding IPM adoption in Vermont requires a coordinated and collaborative effort on the part of grower associations, UVM researchers and Extension specialists. Growers are slow to adopt new methods with good reason--they want to make sure they work. Significant advances have taken place in landscape practices that could be adopted here. The first critical step when initiating an IPM research/outreach program is to collect data on pest and disease issues, current management practices and knowledge level, pesticide use and extent of IPM adoption. A survey of VT landscapers is underway to provide key information on what landscapers need to adopt IPM, and how many landscape operations exist in the state and acres managed. This will enable us to develop programs to meet landscaper needs and advance IPM adoption. A Road Map for IPM in Vermonts Landscape Industry will be developed for review by industry stakeholders after sufficient data on needs are generated. This will serve as the foundation for designing a multi-disciplinary strategy to address research and training needs of Vermont landscapers. Armed with this plan, in future years, appropriate research will be initiated and IPM training opportunities offered.

Hatch/MultiState
The Working Group on Improving Microbial Control of Arthropod Pests .

Principal Investigator: M. Skinner

Accomplishments & Outputs:
This project assesses aspects of the marigold guardian plant system. It evaluates the comparative attractiveness of yellow marigolds to western flower thrips (WFT) with non-flowering and flowering bedding plants of different colors; evaluates the compatibility of disease-suppressing treatments with formulations of experimental and registered entomopathogenic fungi; and tests persistence of formulations of experimental isolates and commercial fungal products in potting media. In Yr 2 greenhouse cage trials were done with flowering and non-flowering orange and yellow osteospermums and pink and red verbenas. When averaged over the trial, yellow and orange osteos had similar numbers of WFT, with the flowering ones having slightly more than non-flowering. Foliar damage for both non-flowering plant types was similar. In contrast, flowering osteos showed greater flower damage than flowering verbenas. Marigolds had more WFT and damage than osteos, and higher numbers on non-flowering treatments. When averaged over the experiment, pink and red verbenas had similar numbers of WFT. Foliar damage was higher on the pink than the red verbenas in the flowering treatments. Marigolds had more WFT and generally, more foliar damage than the verbenas, with slightly more WFT in the non-flowering treatments. Data from both trials indicate similar results as yr 1 with calibrachoas and petunias. Marigolds are attractive to thrips in both flowering and non-flowering osteos and verbenas, but tend to be more attractive when crop plants are not flowering. Several experiments were done to test the compatibility of entomopathogenic and antagonistic fungi, together and with chemical pesticides with commercial fungal strains and compounds used in greenhouses. The fungus Beauveria bassiana (commercial strain GHA and exp. strains ARS-7060 and ERL-1756) and Metarhizium anisopliae (strain F-53) were grown with the antagonistic fungus Trichoderma harzianum (strain T-22). Trials were done with the antagonist inoculated simultaneously with the entomopathogen and 3 or 6 hr after inoculation of the entomopathogen. In other experiments the entomopathogen was inoculated 3 or 6 hrs after inoculation of antagonist. All strains of B. bassiana in contact with Trichoderma germinated after 16 hr and at 18-24 hr spore viability of 85-98 percent was observed. No differences were found in germination of B. bassiana when mixed with Trichoderma. A decrease in germination was seen for M. anisopliae when mixed with Trichoderma within 6 hr, suggesting antagonism. The compatibility of the commercial B. bassiana and Trichoderma, was tested with chemical fungicides Banrot MAXX and Subdue MAXX. The fungi were combined with fungicides at label rates. Banrot completely inhibited development of all fungi. Fungicide concentrations 2 times less than the recommended rate significantly inhibited fungal germination after 24 hrs. Subdue had no negative impact on fungal growth. The compatibility of disease-suppressing treatments with fungi in pots with soil is underway.

7 projects