ARTICLE INDEX: Click on any title below to jump to that article on this page.

• Battling Garden Pests (Part 1)
• Battling Garden Pests (Part 1)
• Garden Talk: End of August
• Respectful Water Conservation Through Greywater Recycling
• Respectful Water Conservation Through Composting Toilet and Latrine Technology
• Beyond Mow and Blow
• Insects and Gardens, A Bio-rational Truce
• The Future of Disease and Pest Control
• Master Gardeners are a great resource
• Mother's Day Help in Garden
• Japanese Beetles
• Safety in the Garden
• It's spring again!!!
• Growing Citrus as Houseplants
• Vermont Exotic Invasives
• Easy orchid growing
• Welcome friends
• A grape arbor with grapes? In Bennington?
• Conserve energy -landscape
• Garden catalogues to make you dream of spring
• Keep that Aspidistra going
• Weed Wisdom
• Herbes, Herbs, Erbs
• Building Tepees in the Garden
• Growing "Love Apples"
• Almost Time for Bed
• When a rose is a rose is a Rose
• Some Notes on Ornamental Grasses
• A Compost Way of Life
• Hardy Heathers -Hard Scrabble Plants
• Invasive Plants
• A community takes root in Bellows Falls
• Tomato start time is upon us
• Protect transplants from wind and cold
• Savoring Vegetables of the Past
• Defy Mother Nature and Plant out of Season
• Indoor Gardens: A Jump Start on Spring
• The Mighty Empress!
• Certify Your Backyard, It's For the Birds!
• Kindergardening
• Plant a Wildflower Patch
• Sustainable Landscape Design -Part 5
• Sustainable Landscape Design -Part 4
• Master Gardeners: Sprouting up all over Vermont
• Island Pond garden blooms on web
• The French Flowers of Canada!
• A Passion for Peonies
• Gardening tips
• Sustainable Landscape Design -Part 3
• Sustainable Landscape Design -Part 2
• Sustainable Landscape Design -Part 1
• VERMONT NATURE Lichens: Messengers From the Plant World
• VERMONT NATURE Fern Fanfare
• Benefits of Black and Clear Plastic
• Your gardening experiences & some thoughts from MJ
• Harvest your herbs for the holidays and beyond

BATTLING GARDEN PESTS (PART 1)
By Shelley Jurkiewicz, UVM Extension Master Gardener Volunteer (Mountain Gazette, August 18, 2005) (posted 2/13/06)

Whether you grow your plants indoors or outdoors, insect pests always seem to find them. Many times the damage caused by the pests is limited and tolerated by the plant. If this is the case, the insects can be ignored by the gardener. At other times, the gardener must come to the defense of the plant. As a starting point, I would suggest the following two steps.

Step 1: Know your pest. Identify the insect giving you trouble and do some research. Pay particular attention to the life cycle and not the stage(s) when the insect is vulnerable to different control methods. Observe its behavior in your garden. When is it most active? Are there plants in your garden the pest doesn’t touch? Note its seasonal pattern. Is it abundant for a week, causing mass destruction, then disappears?

Step 2: Devise a plan. If you don’t want to spray your entire garden with insecticide, you will likely need to combined pest control strategies. Among the possibilities are barriers, deterrents, traps and biological controls. Keep in mind you probably won’t get rid of every individual, just reduce the numbers to a level where the plants can tolerate them.

For ease of discussion, let’s pick an insect… hmm, how about a grasshopper… and follow the two-step process outlined above.

Step 1: Grasshoppers generally lay their eggs in late summer in the soil, where they overwinter until the weather begins to warm up the next spring. In late spring or early summer, depending on species and the weather, lots of itty bitty grasshoppers hatch. This stage is called a nymph and over the course of the summer the little hoppers will eat, grow, and molt until they are mature and the whole cycle starts over. The egg and young nymph stages are when the grasshoppers are the most vulnerable and, unfortunately, least noticeable.

Now, before we continue, in all fairness to the grasshoppers it should be noted that not all species are pests and they do plan an important role in the ecosystem, providing a rich food source for countless other creatures. But if grasshoppers are eating your favorite heirloom or if the population is out of control, intervention will probably be needed.

Step 2: Devise a plan. Here are some strategies you might want to consider.

Deterrents: Experiment with different natural repellants like soap, garlic, or hot pepper. If you notice a plant in your garden that the grasshoppers don’t touch, say thyme, you might brew a strong tea with it and spray it on the plant(s) they do bother. Ore puree some leaves from a plant they don’t eat, thin it a bit and use it as a spray. Use caution if you try this. You don’t want to sue your kitchen blender to puree plants that are toxic to grasshoppers and humans.

Predators: Grasshoppers have lots of natural predators. Snakes, toads, mice, praying mantis, and skunks are just a few of the animals that eat grasshoppers, though you may not want to invite all of them to your garden. Birds, though, are a great choice. Set out birdhouses to attract nesting pairs of birds (hungry babies will eat lots of grasshoppers). Domestic fowl like guinea hens, chickens, and geese can reduce the grasshopper population, although in my experience chickens will either eat or trample plants in the process.

Next time, we’ll cover a few more strategies, including barriers, biological controls, traps, and limited insecticide use.

BATTLING GARDEN PESTS (PART 2)
By Shelley Jurkiewicz, UVM Extension Master Gardener Volunteer (Mountain Gazette, September 1, 2005) (posted 2/13/06)

Last time, we started a discussion of what you could call “natural” pest control. Selecting a pest at random, we started a survey of potential non-chemical control methods for grasshoppers. With practically no end to the possible solutions, there is one common denominator. To be most effective, control methods need to be used when the grasshoppers are most vulnerable… when they are small. Once they mature to the big, extra-crunchy stage, they are almost indestructible.

Barriers: Cover your plant(s) with row cover or a light screen. A living barrier of cilantro might be effective.

Traps: Bury a jar and fill it with water/molasses mix. Grasshoppers will follow the sweet smell, fall in, and drown (plain water might be an effective trap, too). Plant a “trap crop” away from your main garden where you can attract a large population of grasshoppers and destroy them there.

Biological controls: Grasshoppers are susceptible to the single-celled parasite Nosema locustae. It is available commercially as a bran bait. This form of control has some additional benefit in that grasshoppers will consume the bodies of other dead grasshoppers, and in turn be infected by the parasite.

Diatomaceous earth: A powder of diatom shells – the sharp edges of the shells can cut the soft exoskeleton of young grasshoppers and make them susceptible to dehydration. While it is not toxic to humans, you should take precautions to avoid inhaling the powder.

Limited insecticide use: If you don’t want to do a general insecticide application, consider one of the following methods. Carbaryl-laced bran is available as a bait. In this form, exposure to the insecticide would be limited to the chewing type insects. Spraying insecticide on only those plants attacked by the grasshoppers would also limit the exposure of beneficial insects to the insecticide.

Cultivation: Turn your soil in the fall and destroy/expose some grasshopper eggs to decrease you population for next year.

The suggestions above are a sampling of possible grasshopper controls. All that is left for a gardener to do is choose a method or combination of methods, try it, and watch. While it is sometimes exasperating dealing with garden pests (especially if you are depending on your garden for food or income), it can provide a gardener with the opportunity to practice their detective skills… C.S.I. in the garden.

GARDEN TALK: END OF AUGUST
By Elaine Nordmeyer, Master Gardener (Rutland Tribune, August 24, 2005) (posted 2/13/06)

At the end of August, you can buy perennials at bargain prices. The same goes for trees and shrubs. If you plant them well and give them plenty of water, they will reward you next summer. Garden centers are practically giving away annuals this time of year. Take advantage of these bargains to brighten up your late summer gardens. For example, Icicle pansies can add color, and fill in bare spots in your flower garden at this time of the year, and will be there blooming early in the spring. Look for them to be available around Fair time.

If your hanging baskets are looking sad, you can cut them back, add some time release fertilizer, and water them well. Remember to use organic fertilizer if you are planning on dumping those hanging baskets into your compost at the end of the season. Most other plants and flowers should not be fertilized any more now, because new growth would be too tender to survive the winter.

Early August is a good time to sow seeds for lettuce, spinach, chard, radishes, and the like. I have my late crop of sugar snap peas coming up now. you have plenty of time left for a good crop, but may have a difficult time finding seeds. Incidentally, those tiny morning glory seeds you planted early in the season, are now coming into their full bloom.

Roses, however, tend to get black spots or other fungus this time of year. It is important to remove the affected leaves, and keep the healthy area around them cleared of dead and diseased leaves. You can also spray them with fungicide. Also, if the Japanese beetles are getting on your roses, I find that best thing to do is pick them off the bushes. I use an empty plastic milk gallon with the top cut off, leaving an opening about four or five inches wide. Put a little water and dish detergent in the milk jug, and holding the handle, simply knock them into the container. If they tend to fly away from the jug, the put some ice cubes into the water to stun them. A friend told me about this clever trick. This is a very helpful way to involve children or grandchildren in garden fun!

If not already, think about becoming a Master Gardener. The class will begin again in the spring. You will learn a great deal about gardening and related subjects in the series of classes, and you will be given resource materials as well. If interested, please contact: Vermont Master Gardener, UVM Extension, 655 Spear St., Burlington 05405-0107, or phone: 1-802-656-9562, or e-mail: master.gardener@uvm.edu.

RESPECTFUL WATER CONSERVATION THROUGH GREYWATER RECYCLING
By Steven G. Herbert (American Dowser 44(2):33-38 Spring 2004) (posted 2/7/05)

When a dowser locates water, it is a gift to have that ability, and it is a gift of the Earth to allow its lifeblood to be taken. Isn’t it the least we can do to see that that water is used conservatively, respectfully and sustainably? In the Sring 2003 issue, we discussed how this ideal can be partly achieved through eliminating the flush toilet and adopting composting toilet and latrine technology. While this deletes the blackwater componant, what we have left is greywater, or the remaining household wastewater that comes from washers, sinks, showers and tubs. In this issue, we will look at how greywater can be constructively and locally disposed of by directing it to landscape plants, mulch basins and wastewater gardens.

Water is a sacred and miraculous substance. It composes roughly 70% of the body in which it regulates critical biochemical processes, and carries life energy. This precious liguid has memory, as any homeopathic practitioner can tell you, and can also be imprinted with the intent of the human mind or will. Attitude can be imprinted also. Respect can make it holy, or taking if for granted as a mere commodity for waste removal can sap its vitality. With water resources already strained, water use rising twice as fast as population, and population projected to double in the next forty years, the Earth’s lifeblood will inevitably enforce a greater respect for itself.

Respect can begin at home by at least returning it to the earth in a way that can nurture the environment. Nutrients which would have otherwise been wasted are reclaimed, and the water is much more effectively purified in the upper, most biologically active layers of the soil, then in the conventional septic tank and leachfield system. Where one is connected to a municipal system, it means less energy used to process the waste, fewer chemicals used in treatment, and less tax dollars needed to be spent.

Planning a greywater recycling system begins by accessing whether conditions on the property are right. The yard must first of all be big enough to accommodate the distribution of waste water, and in a way that doesn’t create health risks. The soils must be sufficiently permeable and unsaturated. Special adaptations are needed in the freezing temperatures of temperate climates. Plumbing inside the house must be assessable to allow reconfiguration. Local and state laws must be accomadating. And finally, the user must be aware that such a system requires greater management responsibility, and be willing to take that responsibility.

A large part of this responsibility involves being careful what goes into or does not go into the water. Traditional household cleaning products contain a host of toxic chemicals harmful to both human health and the environment. Most if not all of these can be replaced using recipes made from some combination of the following more benign products: baking soda, borax, essential oils, glycerin, hydrogen peroxide, liquid vegetable-based soaps and detergents, vinegar and washing soda (sodium carbonate). Safer and healthier alternatives can also be purchased from companies such as Seventh Generation.

Even with greywater free of toxic substances, there are cases where greywater reuse is not advised. Even though there is no documented case of anyone ever becoming sick from greywater in the US, one should still avoid direct contact or consumption. Greywater should not be applied to foliage, or especially to fruits and vegetables that are eaten raw, because of microorganisms that may be left behind. Watering the lawn with greywater is not advised for the same reason (except with drip tubing below ground), especially with a sprinkler system where evaporating droplets can leave behind harmful microorganisms that can be inhaled. Remember also that greywater becomes blackwater after only one day. Thus greywater reuse is not advised in conventional flush toilets where water might sit in the tank for longer than 24 hours. Greywater should not be allowed to flow directly into creeks or streams. It should be discharged below ground into a mulch or gravel basin, where it can then percolate through the soil. Even then, it should satisfy the same setback requirements as septic tank to well.

Most water kept toxin-free that emerges from the home is relatively safe for the environment with a couple of exceptions. The most problematic utility in the average home is the automatic dishwasher. Conventional dishwashing compounds have high pH and salt content. Unfortunately, alternative cleaning products don’t clean well. And depending on degree of pre-rinsing, the waste water may have a high quantity of solids. Also, softened water and water softener backwash is high to extremely high in salt.

As a rule of thumb, 55 gallons per person per day is used in the average home without water-conserving fixtures, which could cut this down to as low as 40. Your automatic dishwasher uses 5 to 10 gallons per load. The washing machine uses 30 to 50 gallons per load in a top loader, compared to 10 gallons for a front-loader. An average person uses 10 to 20 gallons per shower, and 40 for an adult bath. One to five gallons per person per day goes down the bathroom sink and five to fifteen gallons per day down the kitchen sink per average American. Each American uses three times the water of his European counterpart, and fifteen times as much as the typical citizen of the developing world.

My host family in Siguatepeque, Honduras use a system typical of that in the Third World. Dishes are washed on a screened-in ledge outside the kitchen window. The water drains down a gutter past a row of plants. The shower and wash-basin drain to water the banana trees. Basically, this illustrates the principle that ideally the water from each fixture should water its own separate area outside the home. The major difference is that in the northern regions of the US, inside plumbing should include three-way diverter valves such that greywater can be diverted into the conventional septic system during the winter months.

There are several safer and more legal alternatives to the open-gutter greywater distribution system typical of the developing world. One of them is the branched drain, which works well where there is a continuous and even slope away from the house. This system features hard plumbing with one or more “double-ells” splitting the flow, buried in the ground. Alternatively, one might use flexible PVC laying on the surface of the ground which can be manually moved periodically as required. In both cases, the greywater exits into a mulch basin or mini-leachfield. Distributing to drip-irrigation tubing is not advised unless that water can be finely filtered and put under pressure (5 to 10 psi minimum). It is debatable whether a grease-trap installed under the kitchen sink is worth the trouble. Perhaps more advisable is the inclusion of a fine particle filter to capture synthetic fibers coming out of the washer.

It is perhaps the washing machine which is the most problematic fixture to plumb for greywater recycling. Washer water can be distributed directly to the landscape through flexible PVC, but the washer pump life will likely be shortened due to the extra load, hot water could scald your plants, or the washer may siphon waste water back in. Letting the washer water fill an auxillery 55-gallon drum solves all these problems. The inlet to the drum could have a filter bag made of a nylon stocking. The drum itself could be drained by gravity or by means of a sump pump.

At the end point of the drain one has many options. A mulch basin features rocks around the end of the pipe draining into a shallow pit filled with a mulch such as shredded bark. In a mini-leachfield, the drain enters an inverted flower pot half-buried into a mulch or gravel-filled rectangular pit. A box trough with a removable lid is constructed of redwood or cedar boards. The water enters and falls against a splash block before it drains into the ground. A leaching chamber is like a larger version of the mini-leachfield. An eco-chamber is a short length of 6” to 12” PVC pipe, ends capped with redwood disks, holes in the disks stuffed with decorticated redwood bark to discourage roots from entering. An infiltration bed is a rectangular pit filled with layers of, from bottom to top; stones, wire screen, gravel, sand, top soil, and mulch, supplied by an infiltration pipe. One can also supply distribution cones (buried inverted flower pots) with ½” drip line. With both infiltration pipe and dripline, greywater needs to be filtered and pressurized. The infiltration bed would be the likely choice to install in a greywater greenhouse, an attractive alternative in temperate climates.

The constructed wetland can be a seasonal option in temperate climate and a year-round solution in warmer climes. An area is excavated to an open depth and lined with a waterproof membrane. At one end, greywater enters a half-pipe surrounded by 1 ½” to 3” rock. At the other end, treated water exits. In between, aquatic plants planted in ½” to 1’ gravel do the treatment.

Of course, one can also opt for lower tech but more labor intensive alternatives such as “cascading”. This refers to running a garden hose out the bathroom window to drain the tub, saving shower warm up water to flush the toilet, or carrying the dishpan water out to water the flowers. At the other end of the spectrum, one can choose a much easier but much more expensive automated system such as a sand filtration to subsurface drip irrigation.

The divine gift to locate water ought to go hand in hand with respect for this precious and sacred substance and a sense of responsibility that it is sustainably managed. In addition to converting to a composting toilet, recycling greywater is another way. Once one has determined the property is suitable for such a system, and is committed to the greater responsibility of managing it, then there are various designs to choose from. Ideally, greywater from each fixture is individually directed to a separate mulch basin or mini-leachfield on the landscape. Alternatively, it can be channeled more centrally to infiltration beds in a greenhouse or a constructed wetlands. Centralized sewage treatment is expensive, chemical and energy-intensive, and our dependency on this and other parts of the grid make us vulnerable. Treating greywater locally and giving back to the earth is the sane alternative.

Steve Herbert is an earth scientist, transpersonal anthropologist, and international dowser. He is an eighteen year member of ASD and Secretary of the Water for Humanity Fund. He invites your inquiries and comments at P.O. Box 824, Colchester, VT 05446, by cell phone (603) 616-7872, or email at waterdowser@hotmail.com.

REFERENCES
Ludwig, Art Create an Oasis With Greywater: Your Complete Guide to Choosing, Buiding and Using Greywater Systems 1994 Oasis Design: Santa Barbara, CA
Logan, Karen Clean House, Clean Planet

RESPECTFUL WATER CONSERVATION THROUGH COMPOSTING TOILET AND LATRINE TECHNOLOGY
By Steven G. Herbert (American Dowser 43(2):11-18 Spring 2003) (posted 2/7/05)

If a terrorist group were to devise a way to bring American to its knees and have a good laugh at the same time, what would be the best way to do that? I submit they would decide to shut down the grid, and leave Americans unable to flush their toilets. But considering an alternative to the flush toilet and centralized sewage treatment centers is not just a good idea to make us less vulnerable to terrorist attacks. It is also an environmental advantage with respect to water conservation, at the same time that it affords the element of water its due respect. Offered here is an outline and a guideline to the decisions one must make in selecting or designing a dry or composting toilet or latrine system.

Per capita consumption of water in the US is three times that of the average European and fifteen times that of the typical person residing in a developing country. By some estimates, of all the potable water that comes into the average American household, fully a third gets flushed down the toilet. With worldwide average consumption rates rising twice as fast as population, and population projected to double in forty years, its plain to see that soon flushing will be a luxury we can no longer afford. As dowsers who locate water, with our gift comes responsibility to promote sustainable use of this precious resource.

Only a fraction of one percent of the earth’s total water supply is available for use, and these reserves are already strained. Surface supplies are shrinking while water tables lower. Groundwater is being withdrawn faster than it can be replenished. Such unsustainable water use can also have political repercussions as well as environmental. Eighty nations now have serious water problems which will become severe within twenty years. Twenty two countries depend upon other nations for a majority of their water. One hundred and twenty river systems in the world flow through two or more countries. The Niger, for example, flows through ten. Some say the next major war could be fought over water, not oil. We have already in some places seen the price of water rise higher than oil.

Beyond the obvious necessity for responsible use of a precious commodity, is needed a new attitude of respect for a truly miraculous and sacred substance. Several attributes about water make life on earth possible. It is the only substance, for example, which becomes less dense upon freezing. Also it is the only material that passes through the three stages of gas, liquid and solid within the temperature range that living organisms can tolerate. But it is perhaps its electrical and energetic properties that make it most mysterious. As such, it is a powerful solvent, which is important to biological processes. Beyond this it is a carrier of life force within the body. Water has a memory, which is the principle upon which homeopathy works. By this quality water can become blessed and act as a powerful healing force. What are we doing to water by disrespectfully depositing our waste in it?

Supplies may be increased by dowsing for live water, rainwater harvesting or desalinization, but we can show our respect most by conserving it in the first place. Agricultural practices may loose up to half its irrigation water in the process of distribution to evaporation and runoff. More efficient methods such as drip irrigation can make a big difference. Industry can potentially save a lot through water reuse. Within the home, more efficient washers, dishwashers and low-flush toilets can reduce significantly. The practice of “cascading”, or reusing dishpan or shower warm-up water in the toilet bowl or on outside plants can save more. But the biggest savings can be realized by eliminating flushing altogether.

Once committed to the idea of a dry or composting toilet, the first decision to be made is whether to purchase a pre-manufactured unit or have one custom built into the home. There are many brands to choose from; Clivus Multrum, Phoenix, CTS, Envirolet, Sun Mar, Nature-Loo, Rota-Loo, VERA, or Biolet, etc. These can be purchased directly from the manufacturer or from a dealer such as Jade Mountain in Boulder, Colorado (see Resources at end of article). Prices range widely depending on the type of system purchased.

Whether one chooses to purchase a pre-manufactured unit or contract one to be site built, the next decision is whether to have a self-contained unit or one which is centralized/remote. The former is easily portable such as one might have in a camp or hunting lodge, where there is no basement and use is seasonal or sporadic. A centralized system features a permanently mounted stool with the composting unit remotely placed in the basement or floor below.

Self-contained units come with a variety of features, needing only to be hooked up to a venting system. Some designs may be fully adequate for year-round continual use. They may be single or multi-chambered, require electricity for heating and aeration or be totally non-electric. Models are available which dehydrate or incinerate the contents, but these are not truly composting. One may also opt for a home-made unit such as a sawdust toilet built of plywood and using an ordinary five-gallon plastic bucket (see Joseph Jenkins’ Humanure Handbook, pages 179 to 188). Starting with a little sawdust in the bottom of a bucket placed under the toilet seat, a scoop of rotted sawdust cover material is deposited after every use. When full the contents are transported to a composting area.

The third design decision is whether your composting toilet will have a single vault or multiple chambers. Among pre-manufactured self-contained systems, if the unit is to be used continuously, especially by a family, then a multi-chambered model is pretty much a necessity. The centralized Clivis Multrum system by contrast, features a large continuous-use single vault. In this design, fresh material is deposited on top, and finished compost is removed from the bottom of an inclined chamber. In practice, however, liquids may continually percolate through the entire contents, such that one may not be entirely sure of the safety of the finished product. Most pre-manufactured remote systems, unfortunately, are only offered in a single vault option. This is why a custom-built, double-vault alternate-use or multiple-chamber rotating-use system is recommended.

All the composting latrines I designed and built in Africa and Central America ere double-vault, fixed-batch systems. Each vault, made out of cement or brick, had one cubic meter and a half capacity, enough for a large extended family or small school. A stool or stoop plate was mounted over each vault. It might take as much as a year to fill up one, at which time the use is switched to the second, leaving the contents of the first to “cure” undisturbed. By the time the second vault is filled at the end of the following year, the first is ready to be dug out and reused. I was in Africa long enough to see the finished product from my original prototype. It looked like dark and rich chocolate cake.

There are alternatives, however, to dual vaults built permanently side by side. Another variation is a composting unit with multiple chambers which can rotate each time one is filled. Also, a single stationary unit may be designed to accept removable bins. In any case, the composting unit must be designed to manage, whether passively or actively, several key factors. These are: oxygen levels, temperature, moisture, Carbon to Nitrogen levels, and of course, pathogen levels. If all is operating ideally, the contents should be fully composted with all pathogens destroyed by the end of six weeks. Therefore, when calculating the capacity of each vault, to be safe, one should figure the time to fill it as a minimum of twice this, or three months.

Certain factors should be considered when making these calculations. Will the use be seasonal or year-round? Will it be mainly day-use only or continuous (day use tends to accumulate a much higher percentage of urine by comparison)? Here are the relevant statistics you will need. One person produces 40.6 fluid oz.s (1.2 liters) of urine per day. The same person also produces 20.3 fluid oz.s (.61 liters) per day of feces. Over a full year, that amounts to 155.8 gallons of urine and 57.9 gallons of feces, or a total of 1,300 lbs. of excrement. In terms of volume, that represents 20.8 cubic feet (.6 m3) of urine and 7.7 cubic feet (.2 m3) of feces per average person per year. Keep in mind that the volume of the contents will constantly decrease during the composting process. In fact, the volume will decrease to as much as ten to thirty percent of its original volume by the end of the incubation period.

In the tropical climates of Africa and Central America, all the units I built were designed to operate passively, requiring minimal management. In temperate climates, the design may need to be more of an active one. This means a small electric fan installed needed to increase the efficiency of aeration, and an artificial heat source built in to keep the contents above “biological zero” (42 degrees F) and speed composting. For every ten degrees C rise in temperature, the composting rate doubles. This is known as “the Q10 temperature coefficient”. Different microorganisms operate at different temperatures. From 42 to 67 degrees F, actinomycetes and fungi dominate in psychrophilic or mouldering processing. At 68 to 112 degrees F, mesophilic bacteria operate under most typical conditions. Ranging 113 to 160 degrees F, thermophilic bacteria take precedence.

The reason for aerating is partly to evaporate liquids, but most importantly to encourage aerobic decomposition. It is the anaerobic bacteria which are mainly the pathogenic and odor-causing microorganisms. Beneficial aerobic bacteria thrive in the higher oxygen and temperature levels which destroy the anaerobic organisms. If a composting unit is operating efficiently and is well ventilated, there should be no noticeable odor detectable from above. The amount of electricity required to operate the fan and heat source is not great, and may well be powered by a solar panel.

Your next major design decision is whether to separate out urine or not. There are several advantages to separation. One is that it reduces moisture levels in the composter contents, hopefully to the ideal consistency of a well wrung out sponge. Second is that prevents the ratio of Nitrogen to Carbon from becoming too high. This is another cause of odors. Third is that it may virtually eliminate the amount of effluent you need to deal with (usually collected in a basal pan), otherwise by means of an evaporator. Urine separated out may be directed to an outside charcoal or limestone-filled soakpit (as in the case of my latrines). It may also be directed to the conventional septic system, an evaporator, added to the greywater, or stored in a tank. The tank may be emptied periodically by a collection service, or used on trees, flowers or other non-food plants. Human urine is relatively sterile and actually has more nutrients than the feces, but it also has a high salt content. Urine-separating seats may be purchased to mount on your custom-made bench, or the entire bowl can be ordered if preferred. When seated, the urine is directed forward to be captured and drained separately. Women will find it more difficult to master but eventually do become accustomed to it. For men, it is advised to install a separate waterless urinal to supplement the composting toilet.

When beginning to use your new composting toilet for the first time, it is recommended that you cover the bottom of the composting vault with a few inches of good compost or rich soil. This adds the beneficial organisms that “inoculate” the system. It also provides a medium for liquids to soak into. After each use, it is also a good idea to get into the habit of using a “dry flush” material. The best recipe is one part compost or good soil to one part ashes and one part a dry carbon material such as straw, wood shavings, or bean chaff, etc. The carbon material helps prevent compaction of the contents and thus encourages aeration. Aeration may be further encouraged by interior mixers, grates, air channels, etc. However, these tend to be in the way when removing contents and present a maintenance nightmare if they need repair. Usually their liabilities outweigh benefits. Just remember, “one scoop per poop”, to cover fresh deposits and this will probably aerate adequately.

In a centralized or remote system, the toilet seat or bowl needs to be mounted directly over the composting chamber with an average ten inch diameter drop pipe installed vertically for a straight shot. For any supplemental bathrooms in the house, one might consider a micro-flush toilet which would allow the plumbing to take a more circuitous route to the common composting chamber. It is advised that you construct the inside of your composting chamber with a slightly sloped cement floor so that leechate may drain forward to a collection device. Radiant heat may be designed into this floor. Otherwise, a submersible aquarium heater, a light bulb in a fire-proof box, or waste heat from a dryer duct may warm the contents. Build the unit a foot or so off the floor in case of flooding, and naturally, install an access port for removing contents and another for inspection or raking/turning contents.

The laws in most states are sill not very sympathetic towards this technology. Yet I feel it is the wave, even the necessity of the future. In most cases you will be required to have a conventional, or at least a reduced septic tank and leach-field, to handle greywater and for resale purposes. If you are fortunate, this technology may enable you to avoid building an expensive mound system. In any case, if you can get it approved by an engineer or site tech, your state or municipality may approve it also.

There are many advantages that a single home composting toilet and accompanying greywater recycling system has over a conventional septic tank/leechfield or centralized sewerage treatment plant. The septic tank is a very inefficient composter which is dominated by anaerobic organisms. It acts mainly as a settler, and the effluent that reaches the leach-field is still laden with pathogenic organisms and toxic household chemicals. The risk to groundwater supply is obvious. The massive infrastructure required to centrally treat sewage uses high amounts of energy, large quantities of more chemicals, and a sizable chunk of your tax dollars. The result is a sludge, or euphemistically “biosolid”, that must be land-filled as waste, incinerated to create pollution, or land-applied at considerable risk. Doesn’t it make more sense to process “waste” at its source, and create a valuable product we can give back to the earth?

In conclusion, adopting composting toilet technology makes sense and has many advantages. Besides making us less vulnerable to terrorist attacks by decentralizing, composting toilets are a significant means of water conservation. By their use, we show due respect to the miraculous and sacred substance which water is. Whether one adopts a pre-manufactured unit or custom designs a site-built model, there are several features which must be considered to decide which best suits your particular circumstances. What is recommended here is a centralized or remote, double-vault fixed-batch or multiple-chamber rotating batch, urine-separating system. Its elements must be designed to, whether passively or actively, manage oxygen levels, temperature, moisture, C to N ratios, and pathogen levels. Such a system has many advantages environmentally and fiscally over centralized sewerage treatment facilities, and even over individual conventional septic tank and leach-field systems. Laws at present do not generally recognize this, but the trend will be toward more favorability as water conservation becomes an even more pressing need. Look for an article on greywater recycling in the next issue.

Steve Herbert is an earth scientist, transpersonal anthropologist and international dowser. He is an eighteen year member of ASD and is Secretary of the Water for Humanity Fund. He can be reached at P.O. Box 824, Colchester, VT 05446, by cell phone at (603) 616-7872, or by email at waterdowser@hotmail.com.

REFERENCES
Baumgartner, Rhetta Jacobson Water: The Stuff of Life. American Dowser 32(2):9-11
Jenkins, Joseph C. The Humanure Handbook. 1999 Grove City, PA: Jenkins Publishing
Montaigue, Fen Water Pressure. National Geographic September 2002 202(3):2-33
Simon, Paul Tapped Out: The Coming World Crisis in Water and What We Can Do About It. 1998 US: Welcome Rain Publishers
Steinfeld, Carol and David Del Porto The Composting Toilet System Book : A Practical Guide to Choosing, Planning and Maintaining Composting Toile Systems, An Alternative to Sewer and Septic Systems. 1990
Utne Reader The drying game. Der Spiegal May 25, 1992 in UR May/June 1993
Van der Ryn, Sim The Toilet Papers 1978 Santa Barbara: Capra Press

RESOURCES
The Center for Ecological Pollution Prevention (CEPP), P.O. Box 1330, Concord, MA 01742-1330
Sustainable Strategies, P.O. Box 1313, 50 Beharrell St., Concord, MA 01742-01313 (978) 369-9440 sustainable@aics.net www.ecological-engineering.com
Biolet USA, Inc., Suite 4B, Damonmill Square, Concord, MA 01742 (800) 5BIOLET
Clivus Multrum, Inc., 104 Mt. Auburn St., 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02138-5051 (617) 491-0051
“CTS” Toilet Composting Toilet Systems, P.O. Box 1928, Newport, WA 99156-1928 (509) 447-3708
Envirolet Composting Toilet, Sancor Industries Ltd., 140-30 Milner Ave, Scarborough, Ontario M1S 3R3 Canada
Jade Mountain, Inc., P.O. Box 4616, Boulder, CO 80306 (800) 442-8266
“Phoenix” Composting Toilet, Advanced Composting Systems, 195 Meadows Road, Whitefish, MT 59937
Sun-Mar Composting Toilet, Sun-Mar Corporation, 5035 N. Service Road, C-9, Burlington, Ontario L7L 5V2 Canada
VERA/Eco-Tech Carousel, ECOS?Water Conservaton Systems, Suite 4 Damonmill Square, Concord, MA 01742 (800) 462-3341

BEYOND MOW AND BLOW
A report written from notes recorded at a lecture presented by Steven M. Cohan, PhD, Professor at University of Maryland, at the 2004 Northeast Master Gardener Regional Conference in Baltimore, Maryland. Dr. Cohan trains managers for large landscape companies. (posted 1/11/05)

Management includes maintenance and sustenance. Keep all plants healthy. For example, healthy pine trees have been shown to have thicker sap than stressed ones, so as to deter insects. Healthy plants can produce their own deterrents to pests and diseases. For example, we use pyrethrum and rotenone, extracted from plants.

More coated fertilizers will be available.
Lower toxicity products will be available.

TURF:
• Anything over 10 acres requires a nutrient management program. Some states are enacting legislation toward this end.
• Soil testing should be done. Aim for 6.5-7.00.
• Use grass varieties suitable for climate and local geography (drainage). Fescues have deep root systems, tolerate dry conditions and green up after dormancy brought on by heat and drought. The new fescues are fine-leaved and tough.
• Aeration should be done every few years, accompanied by overseeding.
• Lime applications are needed as indicated by soil test results to maintain proper pH.
• Irrigate as needed.
• Thatch removal is needed more with warm climate grasses.
• Leaving mower clippings on the lawn means less other fertilization is needed.
• Herbicides can be used to keep turf healthy, and are a must for open fields.
• Plant growth regulators are growth retardents sprayed onto turf to reduce the number of mowing times needed. They are considered non- toxic and environmentally safe.

SHRUBS:
• Mulch properly. Use only 3-4 inches, keep mulch away from stems, root crowns.
• Use the proper plant in the proper place.
• Find low maintenance shrubs.
• Provide good drainage.
• Watch for twining roots, especially at planting time, and trim off.
• Amend the soil in the planting hole with native soil mix.
• Fertilizer not needed at planting time.
• Foundation plantings can become sick from alkalinity leaching from the cement. They may also be on hardpan.

TREES:
• Similar to shrubs, with some additions.
• Stake at planting time if in a really exposed area. Remove stakes after one year. Movement of the tree actually helps the root system develop.
• Prune only for crossover branches, broken branches, or to develop strong scaffolding branches (those attached to the trunk with wide angles). Inclusions are narrow crotches with bark in them, and make for weak branches that split off.
• Pruning at the proper time and with proper cuts is important.
• Oxins are hormones that get transferred to the lateral growth buds when the apical bud is pruned out.
• Microrhyzae form a symbiotic relationship with the root system to enhance water uptake and root growth density. Best to have the microrhyzae native to the site. Only if you have a sterile soil site, due to construction, maybe, would it be useful to buy and add microrhyzae. Even then, they would not survive without a lot of added organic matter. Microrhyzae are rendered inactive by excesses of phosphorous in the soil.

Microinjection is the term used for the process of injecting insecticide into the trunk flare.

Diagnostic procedures now include air spading, which means using a hose with a high-pressure air stream to blow away soil to expose girdling roots or other problems. This can also be used to excavate soil around the roots in a shallow radial pattern or a deeper vertical pattern so loam can be added to poor soil.

Enhancements of Landscapes
• Renovations of landscapes are up to 30% of the volume of work done by companies now.
• New installations are also important. Look for certified technicians who have been trained.
• Plan for seasonal color displays by interplanting for texture, height, bloom period, leaf color.

Phytoremediation is the term meaning using plants as purifiers.

The George Ball Co. in Chicago has a display/trial garden complex that is spectacular to visit in July.

INSECTS AND GARDENS, A BIO-RATIONAL TRUCE
A report written from notes taken at a presentation by Eric Grissell, research entomologist with the FDA, at the 2004 Northeast Regional Master Gardener Conference in Baltimore, Maryland. (posted 1/11/05)

Try not to use the terms “good” and “bad” when speaking of insects. For instance, the European earwig is a predator. It stays on the ground and feeds on soft-bodied insects and eggs. Leave mulch on the ground for them to stay where they belong. Wasps, though humans dislike having them around, are great larvae predators. Ladybugs congregate in peoples’ homes in winter, but are well known for their beneficial predation of aphids.

An insect may provide different services at different stages of its life. The larval stage of many butterflies and moths (caterpillars) are eating machines and destroy their host plants. But the adult stage turns out to be valuable for pollinating other plants, even though it is done accidentally as they feed. Both the larval and the adult stages of butterflies and moths are valuable in the food chain. Predators, such as birds, frogs, bats, lizards and more need them. The dreaded mosquito supplies food during its larval stage to hummingbirds, dragonflies, frogs and fish. These are just several examples of the complex diversity that needs to remain balanced to keep going. Without the prey, predators cannot survive.

Insects aid in recycling dead matter. Dung beetles bury and use dung to feed their newly hatching young. Carrion beetles actually can bury a carcass by excavating beneath it until it sinks into the hole, then laying eggs on it and covering it. Bottle flies lay eggs on carrion so hatching larvae have food, thus cleaning up the carcass. Termites and ants carry dead matter underground. The list can go on and on.

Pollination of plants is vital, and insects do most of the pollination. Bees are the most abundant pollinators, with the solitary bees becoming more and more important. They are usually host specific. “Accidental pollinators” are named as such because they are nectar feeders and simply bump into pollen as they visit plant to plant. These include butterflies, wasps, beetles and other nectar feeders.

Insects can become problems for several reasons.
• They can be imported to an area with no natural enemies, and thus can overpopulate.
• They can take advantage of a monoculture of plants and overpopulate.
• They can take advantage of human use of chemicals that destroy their enemies.
• The can take advantage of a loss of habitat diversity.
• They can take advantage of poor plant health

The main message here is that a normal situation includes a community of plants and plant feeders, a complex diversity that is circular and interdependent on each of its parts. Destroying one part upsets the delicate balance and then needs more and more intervention to try to get back to balance.

Suggested reading:
• Eisenberg, Evan, “The Ecology of Eden”
• Lutz, Frank, “A Lot of Insects”
• Owen, Jennifer, “Garden Life”
• Thompson, Porter, “The Self-Sustaining Garden”

THE FUTURE OF DISEASE AND PEST CONTROL (posted 1/11/05)
Written by from notes recorded at a lecture presented by Dr. Kenneth Horst, Professor Emeritus, Cornell University, research specialist in virus diseases. Dr. Horst is now with AGRITECH, a company formed by Churchill and Dwight (Arm and Hammer Baking Soda) to research and market pesticides and fungicides. The lecture was part of the 2004 Northeast Regional Master Gardener Conference in Baltimore, Maryland.

The main thrust of present research is aimed at finding biocompatible control at the level of the host-pathogen interaction.

Dr. Horst gave a thumbnail sketch of the history of the use of chemicals to combat pests and diseases:
• Sulfur was already in use in 1000 B.C. as found in the writings of Homer.
• Copper Sulfate came into use in 1862 on roses and in 1882 on grapes. (Bordeaux mixture was originally used to keep people from stealing grapes)
• DDT was used in the 1940’s during WWII by the GI’s to control body lice. It was also used to control mosquitoes carrying malaria. Related maneb, zaneb, and captan are still in use today.
• 1960’s brought about “Silent Spring” by Rachel Carson, and in the 1970’s the EPA was born.
• 1996 gave us the FGPA-Food Quality Protection Act
• 2001-Diazinon taken off the market

The next ten years will see less toxic chemical treatments.

Bicarbonates have been shown to affect the pH and provide desiccation and other direct action on cell membranes of funguses, such as powdery mildew, downy mildew and botrytis. They require sticker-spreaders to be effective.

Potassium carbonate (baking powder) has shown better results than sodium carbonate (baking soda). It was shown to destroy powdery mildew even after the host was infected. There may be some residual brown mottling on the host. Downy mildew and botrytis can also be treated. The products now available are marketed with the following names: Americarb, Agricure (may also be named Green Cure), Remedy, Milstop. They all include the carbonate mixed with a sticker-spreader.

Master Gardeners are a great resource
By Peggy Stattel, Master Gardener (Rutland Herald, June 19, 2004) (posted 8/25/04)

So your garden is all planted, maybe more than once because of hail, frost, too much or not enough rain, insects, bunnies, deer or whatever pesky pests that can cause havoc in a short period of time.

If we had a perfect world, all our plants would look just like the ones in those flashy seed catalogs. No thanks. True Vermont gardeners love the challenge. There are bragging rights in growing exceptional vegetables and flowers despite the weather and critters.

If you do have garden questions or plant problems, you can always call the Master Gardener Helpline at (800) 639-2230. The Master Gardener program has been in Vermont for about 13 years. It is part of a nationwide program that recruits, trains and oversees volunteer gardeners to promote successful, safe and environmentally prudent home horticulture practices through education and community activities.

You may even know a master gardener. They work with other groups like the Boys and Girls Club, 4H and UVM Extension system. Some projects include setting up and staffing informational booths at the local agricultural fairs and the Vermont State Fair, and doing workshops on topics like invasive plants or backyard composting. They provide information days at farmers’ markets, work with children to teach them how to grow and prepare their own vegetables, and design, maintain and give educational tours of community gardens to name a very few. The list is endless.

Sometimes they even research and write an article or two for the local newspaper. That’s how I did my volunteer hours for the two years after I took the Master Gardener course. The course is 14 weeks of intensive study and then a number of volunteer hours interning to become certified. To maintain certification, the master gardener must continue volunteering each year.

Mother's Day Help in Garden
By Peggy Stattel, Master Gardener (Rutland Herald, May 1, 2004) (posted 7/13/04)

This Week: Crabapple trees help pollinate apple trees. Beware the full moon, said to bring on cold nights and frost. Corn stalks support pole beans. Beans supply nitrogen for corn. Place peony hoops on floppy plants while shoots are young.

Mother's Day is celebrated next week. Did you know that it's the number one day for phone calls? Call your mom early or you may get a busy signal. It's become a very commercial day but I like to think of it as an opportunity for us to thank the women who have brought so much into our lives. They may not be your biological mother but rather a kind, nurturing, caring individual who was there for you when you needed a shoulder to cry on or just a dose of reality.

Gift giving is part of this holiday. For mothers who are also gardeners I've got a great solution to the commercialism and expense of purchasing a present. (Besides most of us have more nightgowns, silly t-shirts, bath salts and knickknacks then we can ever use)

How about helping your mom in the garden? Wow, what an idea! It's cheap, practical and she'll love it.

Make her a card and include a coupon for a certain number of hours of help. You can be creative and get together with your siblings or other relatives and do a special project that your mom has only dreamed about. For example, if she wanted a rose garden you could help her lay out the design and supply the manual labor for the implementation. A few rose plants would complete the gift. You'll be tired but in the end you'll have a very happy mom.

Now if you're not the gardening kind but she is you can still help. With your mom's permission, of course, you could hire a landscaping service to do the mundane chores so that she can concentrate of the fun garden things. Someone to clean up the yard in the spring and fall, rake, mow and edge once or twice a month would ease her burden. Make sure the company or person you hire has a reputation for doing a good job. Ask for references and a fee schedule. Settle on a price for each job up front. Don't expect something for nothing, extra work means extra pay. If you know a neighborhood teenager they may be eager to make a few dollars too. Remember to pay a fair wage or you'll get what you pay for.

A few years ago I hired a young man who started his own landscaping business. We agreed on a price and scope of work. I was delighted with his help but he left to go to college. His stepfather took over the business and I am just as delighted with his work. His help allows me to spend my garden time working on projects that interest me, like creating another perennial bed or planting a berry patch.

Over the years my children have helped in the garden. Sometimes by choice, sometimes by request. Sometimes they just talked while I listened and worked. It didn't matter to me as long as they were around. Happy Mother's Day.

Japanese Beetles
By Peggy Stattel, Master Gardener (Rutland Herald, April 17, 2004) (posted 4/21/04)

This Week: Soak rusty tools in white vinegar to remove rust. Divide perennials as they emerge if needed. Perennials growing in rings (open centers) need dividing. Primroses make excellent gifts for that special administrative person. Primroses are fairly hardy perennials and can be transplanted outside later in the season.

April showers bring May flowers. They also bring mud season to Vermont. Having a white floor in my kitchen and bathrooms (what was I thinking?) it's a time I always remember. We need the rain for our upcoming garden season but make sure you don't jump the gun and begin working outside if the soil is too wet. Working in wet soil will compact it and cause problems for your plants. If you pick up a clump of soil and it sticks together when you squeeze it in your hand then it's too wet to till. It's so hard to have warm sunny days and not be able to play outside. Get all your other chores done - check the compost pile, organize your tools, wash the mud off your car, floor, pets and before you know it you'll be in the garden again.

Over the years the one question I get asked most is how to get rid of Japanese beetles. I get asked this in July when the beetles emerge and begin devouring raspberries, roses and just about everything else in sight. By that time it's too late to do anything but hand pick them off the plants. I carry a coffee can half filled with hot soapy water as I make my garden rounds so I can plop those little pests right in. Of course I wear gloves.

At this time of year the beetles are still small white grubs in the soil feeding on roots and underground stems. They're partial to grasses and can cause considerable damage to turf. The mature beetles lay their eggs in the soil about late August so the larvae spend the fall feeding. They burrow down for winter and then resume their destruction in the spring.

It's difficult if not impossible to get rid of all Japanese beetles. Getting rid of the grubs can reduce their numbers considerably. Moles, skunks, birds, especially starlings feed on Japanese beetle grubs. I don't know anyone who would want moles and skunks in their yard so that's not a viable solution. Moles can do more noticeable damage than grubs.

Japanese beetles and grubs are susceptible to several diseases. Milky spore disease is the most commonly known. It kills the grubs by causing their clear blood to turn milky. It lasts in the soil for a long time killing many generations of beetles. It's harmless to humans, warm blooded animals, plants and other insects.

Now is the time to spread this commercially available disease over your lawns and flower beds. It comes in the form of a dust that can be applied with a spreader. It's not entirely effective here in Vermont due to the cool, wet soils. It does better in hot dry areas. You may have to apply the disease several times for it to be effective but it does work.

If you don't want to use milky spore disease you may want to try these tasty recipes. Mince 10 to 15 cloves of garlic, soak in a pint of mineral oil for 24 hours. Strain and spray as is or add a few drops of soap and dilute with water. Blend 1/2 cup of hot peppers with 2 cups of water, strain and spray. You can also combine garlic with peppers, let stand for a day or so, strain and spray.

This is an interesting brew. Get a blender and utensils that won't be used for food again. Mix 1/2 cup of an offending insect, like Japanese beetles or their grubs, with 2 cups of water. Blend, strain, add a few drops of soap and put in a sprayer. This sounds a little yucky to me but I'm told that offending insects hate the smell of this mixture. In July for those pests that survive my heartiest efforts to eliminate them I sprinkle wheat flower on my raspberries and pumpkins. Japanese beetles really hate that. There's no guarantee on the results of any of these concoctions but they're relatively safe to use on your plants.

Do you have any other unique treatments for getting rid of garden pests? Let me know.

Safety in the Garden
By Peggy Stattel, Master Gardener (Rutland Herald, April 3, 2004) (posted 4/7/04)

This Week: Set clocks ahead tonight (Spring forward, Fall back). Buying an Easter lily? Pick one with lots of buds, not quite opened. Prune spring flowering shrubs after bloom. Prune deadwood from roses after new growth appears.

A few weeks ago I received a call from Nanci McGuire of the Rutland Natural Resources Conservation District seeking volunteers for their 2004 tree, shrub and more sale. On May 3 through 7 from 9AM until 3PM she's looking for folks to package up bare root plants and make sure they're in good shape when their new owners pick them up. It's very important that the roots not be exposed to the air. Those interested in volunteering for all the time or just a day or so can call her at 775-8035 ext. 17 and leave her a message. Master gardeners can use these hours towards their yearly volunteer time.

Nanci urged volunteers to dress appropriately, work clothes, gloves and sturdy rubber boots are a must. Safety goggles may be a good idea too. The work will be done in a sheltered but unheated area so dress in layers in case the weather changes. I told her I'd give her request a plug in this column because I planned to write about safety in the garden. Every year there are dozens and dozens of gardeners who end up at the emergency room of their local hospital because they didn't play it safe.

Gardening should be fun but sometimes it's dangerous. There are chores that should be left to professionals. We had a few trees taken down last season by a reputable company. Some had split and I was afraid they'd fall into the house. There was no way I was going to let my wonderful husband try and remove them. He's a very talented guy but doesn't know the first thing about taking down trees. I love garden tools but there again safety is my utmost concern. My favorite orthopedic surgeon told me that he sees many mangled limbs and digits from folks sticking their hands and feet into mowers, trimmers and shredders.

Before you use any piece of equipment - manual or motorized - make sure you read the instructions. If you're not familiar with the tool ask someone who knows how to use it. It's a very good idea to keep all your tools in excellent running condition. Mower blades should be sharp and unobstructed. Here's a neat tip: buy an extra blade for your lawnmower. This way if one needs sharpening you can replace it with the sharp one. There goes your "the blade's not sharp" excuse for not mowing the lawn. All engines should receive a yearly maintenance check. We spend so much money on our outdoor equipment it's a shame to let them get into disrepair because we don't want to spend a few dollars having them serviced.

Keeping ourselves in good shape is important too. Wearing proper clothing is just one part of happy gardening. You need to remember to pace yourself. I am so guilty of not following my own advice. It's amazing how much I can get done on the first sunny, warm day in the spring. Unfortunately my poor old body doesn't appreciate my zeal. Sometimes it even refuses to work for a day or two afterwards. Make a list and check off your tasks one by one. If you're tired, sit down. If you're thirsty, have a cool drink -water is preferable to sugary drinks. Wear sunscreen and a hat!!! I'm famous for going to the garden with the idea of only being out for a minute or two. An hour later my ears and back of my neck is sunburned and my nose blistered. No more. I put sunscreen on each sunny day right after I take my shower. I use the waterproof kind that's made for children. It has a SPF45 rating and I reapply it in the afternoon.

If you have four-legged companions that follows you around the garden make sure they're safe too. I recently read that cocoa mulch is toxic to dogs, sometimes fatally. I love the smell of the mulch but I love my silly little dog, Belle, much more. There is a website - www.aspca.org, which has lists of plants and garden materials that are harmful to animals and those that are safe. It's a great site for interesting articles about things we don't think of that have the potential to cause great harm to those furry creatures who adore us. For example, did you know that grapes and raisins could cause kidney failure in dogs? Check it out for your pet's sake.

If you're interested in some hard but satisfying work, give Nanci a call. If you have any garden questions or ideas you'd like me research and write about you can contact me at stattel@vermontel.net. 

It's spring again!!!
By Peggy Stattel, Master Gardener (Rutland Herald, March 20, 2004) (posted 4/7/04)

This Week: Check tools to see if they're in good shape. Take mowers in for a tune up and sharpen clippers and hoes. Prune summer flowering shrubs and trees if needed. Watch for local garden seminars. Repot houseplants and check for insects.

It's spring again!!! (Pause here and do dance of joy!) As I write this the sun is shining, the wind blowing and it's a few degrees above freezing. I'm sure we'll have more snow and cold weather but we're on our way to warmer days. The Christmas season is officially over at my house. I wait until spring to take down the wreath on my front door. The in-between season is not on my top ten list of mood-lightening days so I extend the holidays until spring, which is my favorite time of year.

Over the last few weeks folks have asked my how my garden is growing. To tell the truth, it's perfect. Of course, it's all in my head. I started imagining what I was going to plant this year right after New Year's Day. I understand that reality (also known as Vermont weather) and my dreams of the perfect garden don't necessarily coincide. Half the fun of gardening is the challenge of making something work despite the odds.

The most important thing about gardening in Vermont is the joy it brings to us. If it's not enjoyable then I wouldn't do it. Over the years I've learned a few things that have helped me get the most out of a season. If you're a first time gardener then keep it simple. Even if you have a large yard, lots of land or tons of space don't try to do everything in one season. Start with a plan and stick to it. Too many things going on at the same time could cause you to become overwhelmed and lose the joy. Not to mention most of your crop.

For example, a few tomato or pepper plants are okay, a few dozen will all ripen at the same time and while you love tomatoes and peppers there's just so many you can eat at one time. If you don't plan to can or freeze your harvest then only plant enough vegetables for you to have fresh produce during the growing season. You can also plant vegetable varieties that will ripen at different times of the season, some early and some late. That will extend your harvest. I always have a few squash on the vine by the time frost hits. My Swiss chard lasts from early spring until late, late fall. You can also plant a second crop after the first one is harvested. This works for peas, beans, lettuce and spinach.

Flowers are my weakness. Last year I planted some zinnias. They were terrific, exploding in color. Bright colors are very in this year so I want lots and lots of zinnias. I bought seed packets of every variety I could find but realized that I have no place to start them. My good friend, who owns a greenhouse, offered to start them for me as a birthday present. (It's so cool have a spring birthday.) I'll pay her the going rate for the plants, just as I would if she chose the seeds.

If you don't have a friend with a greenhouse make sure you don't start more than you can handle. We have some excellent greenhouses/garden centers in this area. I've been to them all. They've already picked the varieties but I'm sure you'll find what you want. You should check them out before the season begins to see what they are going to stock. Being prepared is another way to get off to the right start.

So let the gardening begin. Visions of vegetables and flowers dance in my head. I'm ready to go.

GROWING CITRUS AS HOUSEPLANTS
By Josie Rahe, Master Gardener (Bennington Banner 3/6/04) (posted 4/7/04)

I don't know if all the evidence is in on the advantages of Vitamin C in protecting us from colds and respiratory diseases. I do know that you get a lot of Vitamin C in citrus fruit and that it is still part of the food pyramid. I also know that if you want to rid yourself of the winter blahs, there is absolutely nothing better than watching your orange, lemon or lime flower, set fruit and produce in a sunny place in your living room or in the greenhouse. Key elements for success are good light, adequate humidity indoors, well-drained potting soil, additional nutrients and consistent watering.

Originally from China, citrus was brought to India and then the Middle East and Europe before the time of Christ. It was brought by Columbus to the Americas. Many types of citrus trees can be grown indoors in Bennington. The best way to grow the trees is to keep them in a pot outside in the summer and to bring them in when the temperature goes below 50 degrees. They can winter in either a heated greenhouse or in a sunny window or door in your house. In pots, the trees will only grow two to five feet tall and make wonderful evergreen ornamentals. Indoors, temperatures of 70 degrees during the day and 55 degrees at night are necessary for them to do well.

Watering is so very important. Keep the soil moist, not soggy. Do not leave the container in standing water. Citrus foliage benefits from being sprayed with water in the winter months because heated rooms may need additional humidity. Put the pot in the sink or in the winter in the garage and give it a real misting. The leaves will stay lush and healthy. When testing for water, forget all the advertisements for moisture meters and the like. Your good finger will tell you all the gardener needs to know. Stick in your thumb or forefinger and judge for yourself. Place the pot on pebbles and be sure it has proper drainage holes. Water less often in winter without letting the pot dry out completely and increase the amount of water once growth starts in spring. They may need water as often as once a day in sunny weather.

Citrus trees are evergreen and will naturally drop an old leaf from time to time. If there is a lot of leaf drop check to be sure the tree is not too dry or that it is getting poor light. Moving the tree so that it gets more light may solve the problem.

Inadequate feeding may also cause leaf drop. You can control this by feeding with special citrus food. Feed your trees weekly when in growth with a citrus fertilizer that is high in trace elements of iron and zinc. Feed them less often when they aren't in a growth period.

Flowering will occur several times in the year with fruit setting each time. The flowers are fragrant and beautiful but not all will set fruit. If you see too much fruit setting it is better to thin. Some trees will need thinning to keep branches from breaking under the weight. The fruit gradually develops and turns colour. It will then stay on the tree for several months after ripening. Some orange trees will hold ripe fruit on the branches for 6 to 10 months.

Most citrus trees are self pollinating but if you want to try on your own, take a cotton swab to rub pollen within the flower. Most, however, will produce fruit on their own.

The most likely pests are aphids, red spider mite and mealybug and can be controlled with an appropriate off-the-shelf spray.

This winter, there were days I couldn't make it to the greenhouse since I have to go out the door, down a ramp and into another door to enter it. But there is a window from my living room that looks directly inside the greenhouse so I can keep an eye on what is in there. Framed in that window is the orange tree we have nurtured for a number of years. Next to it is a Ponderosa lemon a proven contender for beauty in your house and the producer of huge fruit. Next to that is our Persian lime. The lime recently presented us with some fruit and we had generous squeezes on our breakfast honeydew.

When this winter's ice and snow kept us indoors and the temperatures dropped below zero, these beautiful trees, with their flowers, fruit and shiny green leaves reminded us that spring will come in a matter of weeks and we will then be able to enjoy them more closely on the deck.

Vermont Exotic Invasives
By Peggy Stattel, Master Gardener (Rutland Herald, July 5, 2003) (posted 7/21/03)

This Week: Container planters need to be watered more frequently. In very hot weather some need water every day. Garlic planted last fall should be ready to harvest. Plant a second crop of peas, lettuce, and string beans. Fertilize gardens regularly.

Every year the Vermont Master Gardener Program focuses on a specific topic(s) as part of their education outreach. This year in cooperation with the Nature Conservatory of Vermont the focus is on Vermont exotic invasives. These are plants, which are not native to Vermont. Over three million acres are lost each year to invasive plants worldwide. That's an area about 3 times the size of Delaware. Biodiversity is an ideal environment for plants and animals. Invasive plants create a monoculture choking out native plants.

Invasive plants lack predators, have aggressive root systems, are adaptable so they thrive in any conditions, grow rapidly and produce lots of seeds. They can take over a home garden in one season and spread to surrounding land. If left unchecked they can upset the balance of native habitats. In Vermont purple loosestrife is taking over marshlands pushing out native cattails.

At a recent Master Gardener meeting the guest speaker was Ruth Marx from Dummerston, Vermont. Dr. Marx holds a Ph.D. in genetics and is extremely knowledgeable in the field of invasive exotic plants. She showed us several varieties, some were beautiful and in my garden. I noticed one of her samples was yellow flag iris. I transplanted them into my garden a few years ago. They have a small flatish flower and lovely yellow color. I whined that I really liked the way they looked in my yard. She replied that I should get over it and clear them out. The clump will enlarge and crowd out other plants. She's right because when I went home I noticed how the small clump I transplanted is about 4 times as big. Yellow flag iris is especially dangerous at the edge of ponds when they, like loosestrife, crowd out cattails and water carries the seeds to new places.

Getting rid of these deadly lovelies is even more difficult. You can't put an invasive on the compost pile. They need to be disposed of in a contained area like the dump. Wrap them in plastic bags and make sure not one piece of root is left or the whole thing will start growing again. Digging them out is such a chore but the only alternative is to call a professional herbicide specialist to remove them chemically.  I don't want to do that so I have a monumental project ahead of me.

I asked Ruth what the worst offender was. She said that foresters hate buckthorn. It produces berries, which ripen all season long. Birds eat the berries, which cause them to get diarrhea and they disperse the seeds throughout the forest. When part of a forest is being clear-cut buckthorn is the first to come up and shades out everything else.

Loosestrife and buckthorn along with many others are on the state's list of quarantined noxious weeds. Folks who move, sell or distribute these and other on the list can be heavily fined. Ruth had to get a special permit for educational purposes just to show them to our class.  She was required to dispose of them properly once the lesson was over.

To help preserve Vermont's natural native environment you need to be aware of what's growing in your garden, not bring plants, seeds or fruits into the country without having them inspected by quarantine officials, landscape with native non-invasive plants and remove those invasive plants already in your area. If someone offers you a plant that you're not familiar with and says it will spread all over, they can't get rid of it - DON'T TAKE IT - unless you check it out beforehand.

The following website http://pss.uvm.edu/mg/mg/ will provide you with a comprehensive list of plants and what to do about them. Click on the icon for Invasive Plant Info. You'll be able to download a particular fact sheet and lots of information about all invasives in Vermont. If you don't have a computer contact the Nature Conservancy of Vermont at 802-229-4425, Vermont Dept of Environmental Conservation at 802-241-3777, the Vermont Dept of Fish and Wildlife, Nongame and Natural Heritage Program at 802-241-3715 or the Master Gardener Helpline at 1-800-639-2230.

Easy orchid growing
By Josie Rahe, Master Gardener (Bennington Banner 3/29-30/03) (posted 4/9/03)

Discovered in the early 19th century, orchids were an immediate hit. Collectors and nursery professionals hired plant explorers to search for orchids worldwide. Because of their exotic nature many believe that orchids are difficult to grow and maintain. A friend advised me to simply try one or two and I found it very easy.

When choosing a place to put your pot, select a bright location with an eastern, or shaded southern, exposure. Orchids need steady temperatures, preferably between 55 degrees and 85 degrees Fahrenheit. Higher temperature can retard growth and fluctuations in temperature can cause buds not to open.

We have three cymbidiums. They need a very well drained soil. We planted them on one part bark chips to one part sand to two parts potting soil. We keep them moist except during the rest period. They have long narrow leaves. They flower on tall spikes between December and June (my spikes just appeared in March). We will keep them drier between October and January. To induce flowering, it is helpful, according to my Greenhouse Book, to have a 10-degree drop in temperature at night. We can achieve this in our greenhouse.

Orchids require less care than ordinary house plants, so don't shy away from them. Here are some easy ones to tempt you:

* Brassavola nodosa - Lady of the night - gives off a wonderful evening fragrance and produces three-inch flowers that are white with colored spots. It can bloom anytime of the year and doesn't need a rest period. It needs full sunlight and temperatures above 50 degrees.

* Cattleya labiata are among the easier orchids to grow. They need to thoroughly dry out between watering. After they flower, they need two months of rest and you let them run dry during this period, watering only every two or three weeks.

*Phaleanopsis, sometimes called moth orchids, are easy to get to flower and have a lot of varieties. They like warmer temperatures and don't like full sun. I'm told they can have up to 40 blooms and can stay in bloom for three months or more.

If you would like to cut a spike and put it in water, be sure the blossoms are in full bloom first. A single spike can have a lot of blooms and last as long as a month in a vase. Try putting some clear glass marbles in the bottom for effect and change the water frequently.

In any case, don't let your friends or guests know how easy it is to grow orchids. Let them just think that you are a superior gardener who can take on fragile things like orchids (which are not in the least fragile. Believe it!).

After ours stop blooming, we will be dividing them again, and that will be another adventure. Cutting into the bulbs and splitting them is a bit scary, but there is a lot of literature on this. I'll let you know how we make out. Instead of three plants, we may have nine, although, one must always give away at least one or two to friends.

Welcome friends
By Josie Rahe, Master Gardener (Bennington Banner 3/15-16/03) (posted 4/9/03)

This cold winter has allowed me to enjoy the birds in my backyard. Watching them feed at the feeder and on the ground is a lesson in coping. Cold winter winds make them puff up their feathers so they look twice their size. Layering is everything when combating the cold.

Ground feeding brings the shy, but brilliant cardinal to the deck and we like our well-dressed juncos parading around in their tuxedos.

Leonard Perry of UVM Extension says all birds prefer to feed in the early morning and again late in the day. But we find that our birds love a "three meals a day" schedule. We are pleased to feed them beginning in the late fall and continuing into leaf-out-time. But we choose to use the deck ourselves during the warmer months.

You can encourage birds by planning your plantings. Wayfaring tree viburnum grows up to 10 feet and has red to black fruit. Privet, whose fruit remains into the winter, and flowering cherry, which is not so ornamental but is very attractive to birds, are all great cultivars for your winged friends. And you might even try a vine like trumpet honeysuckle that has red fruit in early fall to get birds feeding close to your walls.

Trees close to the feeder help a lot. I have a weeping crab not far away and the little birds spend a lot of time in it, breaking open the sunflower seeds. One would think they would have a headache pecking them open on branches, but they seem contented to take their time breaking and chewing them.

Diane Ackerman writes, "A little known secret about hummingbirds is that some die in their sleep." Since they swivel at high speed among many blossoms, they devour vast stores of energy to fuel flights. They must eat every 15 minutes.

And we must satisfy them by supplying deep red fuchsias and red geraniums because they burn life with their hearts beating at 500 beats per minute. No wonder they are exhausted at the end of the day when they enter a kind of limbo, breathing shallowly and slowing their hearts. "Waking up," Ackerman says, "becomes a death-defying act, and so some die in their sleep."

But we find every year, when we have given up and think they will never return, the red-bibbed gent glides into our fuchsia or the geraniums or the petunias or onto the water drops on the leaves of the gingko and fig we have just sprayed with the hose. They are so agile and they jump from plant to plant, preferring flight to walking anywhere. They can hover, fly backward or upside down.

After a while, they seem to know we won't hurt them and they whirr and do aerial acrobatics to thank us for planting those lovely red things with nectar.

Birds and gardens, planting and harvesting, they all go together to make our year. If you're a gardener, it makes sense. If you're a bird, it allows you to live, eat, nest, make little birds and fly a little longer.

A grape arbor with grapes? In Bennington?
By Josie Rahe, Master Gardener (Bennington Banner 3/1-2/03) (posted 4/9/03)

Yes, you can grow grapes in Vermont! At least it's rumored that you can and I'm going to try. The grapevine is one of the oldest cultivated plants in the world. The basic requirements include a good planting site, hardy varieties and proper culture. Well drained soils produce the best growth and grapes need full sun here. The soil need not be highly fertile but vines prefer a slightly acid soil with a pH of 6 to 6.5.

Only one part of my year is in full sun for most of the day so that makes my site choice an easy one. Grapevines require one inch of water per week, either from rain or lugging. so during hot, dry weather we will have to irrigate weekly.

I love grapes, but only the seedless varieties. Most are not hardy except in the very southern part of the state (banana belt Bennington) where winter temperatures rarely fall below minus 10 to 15 degrees. (Ignore this winter.) Here are three candidates: "Canadice," a red with excellent fruit quality which is hardy to minus 15 to 20 degrees; "Reliance," a red with good fruit flavor; "Concord Seedless," a blue with good fruit quality.

My reason for trying a few grape vines is to introduce an arbor into my landscape. An early memory is of hot summers and the coolness of a grape arbor that led to the vegetable garden, and of purple grapes with seeds in the middle. That was a well established grape arbor and I will be starting from scratch so it will be a while before mine shades me.

I've planned my arbor specifications for 12 feet long, two and a half feet deep and seven to eight feet tall. I like the look of impeded cedar poles, and I'll have lattices on the sides for the grape vines to climb. We need plenty of air around since high humidity encourages powdery mildew. Ripened grapes may attract yellow jackets and that would destroy my vision of peace and tranquility, but we have a while to worry about that.

Shoots develop from dormant buds on the previous year's growth. The shoots gradually harden and become woody by winter when they are called canes. only one-year-old growth bears fruit clusters.

While I'm in the process of imagining this arbor in my landscape, I'll run up to Proctor and look into flagstones to put under it. a bench would be pretty cool on the flagstones, but if I move the bench from the porch to the arbor, that will leave the porch bare and I'll just have to buy new wicker rockers for it. The beauty of the arbor has its price tag. Guess this will be my only "new" project this year.

Conserve energy -landscape
By Josie Rahe, Master Gardener (Bennington Banner 2/15-16/03) (posted 4/9/03)

In these days of minus temperatures and whipping winds, I'm remembering some lessons from the Master Gardener Course about the role that planting may serve in decreasing the energy required to keep a home more comfortable in winter and in summer. Shrubs, espaliered plants and vines grown on a bare wall of your house may act as heat control devices insulating walls by absorbing and reflecting the sun's rays before they strike the wall. Leonard Perry of UVM suggests that roses and certain vines such as clematis, grown on a sturdy trellis, shad windows in summer and permit sunlight to enter in winter.

A row of evergreens planed next to a wall creates "dead air" between the plants and the wall, and since dead air has much less cooling power than moving air, the temperature difference between the inside of your house and the outside "still air" space is reduced and held constant. This decreases the loss of heat through the walls. In the summer this still air insulates a house from hot air and helps you keep your cool.

Which way do the winds blow? Winter winds, typically northwesterly, raise the rate of air exchange between your house's exterior and interior environments, resulting in greater fuel consumption. Creating windbreaks will intercept and redirect winter winds before they reach your house.

Our furnace man reported that his main problem this year has been frozen pipes. He reminded me that once people would rake leaves into bags and place them at the base of their houses to keep the cold from the pipes, but with the recent warm winters, they haven't bothered, so this winter we had frozen pipes all over Bennington. I remember seeing those bags, Sometimes, they were the orange ones left over from Halloween.

Hedges will serve as wind breaks. They also provide background for flowers, filter dust and encourage birds. They can take the place of the bags of leaves. The best time to plant them is in early spring. space them not less than one foot apart. According to Dr. Pellet of UVM, a six-foot-high hedge would be spaced about 18 inches apart. Evergreens have winter foliage and density but they don't grow as fast as deciduous hedges like maple leaf viburnum whose black fruit persists into winter.

This Spring, let's plant for the possibility of cold winters and/or hot summers. Hug your house with hedges and help conserve energy.

Garden catalogues to make you dream of spring
By Josie Rahe, Master Gardener (Bennington Banner 2/1-2/03) (posted 4/9/03)

Each day's mail bring new garden catalogues for Spring and Summer. Being a bit adventurous and always trying something new is a sign of good gardening. don't get bored with "same old, same old" in the vegetable garden, and try to vary the flower beds so there is always something new for you, your neighbor and the passersby. Here are a few treats I found this Sunday snowy afternoon in Bennington while I browsed deeply and contentedly into my pile of catalogues.

Chioggia Beets -I've been able to buy them in summer, but I've never tried them myself, so this year is the year! Hopefully this will be an early Spring. "Cook's Garden" sells an heirloom variety, and describes it as a flattish early beet called candystripe for the concentric pink and white rings in its sugary sweet root. The unique color of leaves and root make it a very ornamental plant as well. If you've never had them, cook them with a dab of butter and some balsamic vinegar for a lovely summer side dish. No reason not to plant them in with my Shastas. The foliage would fit right in with the white. This beet needs 55 days.

Black Seeded Simpson, a loose-leaf lettuce from "Cook's," is also an heirloom and is one of the earliest lettuces, maturing in about 45 days. "Cook's" describes it as especially tasty. I want to seed it into flower boxes on our bridge and should be able to get a couple of crops at least before the end of the season.

In the "Make Life Easier" catalogue, I found hanging bucket planters, which will fit in between the lettuce-seeded flower boxes. Made in the shape of an old-fashioned bucket, they have a long curved handle that hooks over a deck or bridge railing, a fence or patio wall. I can fill them with potting mix and add petunias or pansies for a spot of color between the green of the lettuces. They have a hole in the bottom for drainage, are crafted from sturdy powder-coated metal, in yellow, blue, white or light green colors. According to MLE's catalogue, they measure six inches across by five and a half inches deep and the handles are 10 inches upward. Snapdragons might work here, also -what a great splash of color!

Birdhouse Gourds -"Cook's" has this trailing member of the squash family. The seed produce hard-skinned fruits that can be make into birdhouses, but you must give them room to run -and that may be a problem. But I'm going to give it a try. Will Josie win or will the critters get to them before they produce? Only the Garden Spirit knows.

That brings me through only a few catalogues piling up. Better save up a little money, since I really would like two of everything. However, I had a pleasant afternoon and a vision of what may happen when the snow melts.

Keep that Aspidistra going
By Josie Rahe, Master Gardener (Bennington Banner 1/18-19/03) (posted 4/9/03)

The short days of winter slows the growth of your houseplants. Everyone has at least one houseplant and now is the time to give it/them special care, from philodendron to camellias. The slowdown is due to lower light levels and so we must adjust our care. According to Dr. Patti Nagai of the University of Wisconsin, there are three basics to keeping houseplants healthy: light, water and cleanliness.

Tropicals will survive in low light, but will thrive in high light and most flowering plants must have high levels to keep flowering. Those plants you received for the holiday will need a lot of light to keep them going. Direct, hot light may scorch the leaves but indirect light will keep them flowering. Look at the direction your windows face and place your plants by their need for light. East is half shade; its morning light is cool. west is half sun its afternoon light is warm (well, sort of). South is full sun -the most for the longest period - and usually is warmer. North offers the least sun and is usually coolest. Are your plants dropping leaves, turning yellow? They're probably not getting enough light. Try different locations or artificial light above them. Fluorescents are good because they are cool.

Use water carefully. A number-one killer of house plants is over watering. I killed an African Violet by over-watering. Talk about a shrinking violet -this one just folded its leaves and collapsed in a pulpy mess. The plant will tell you if it's getting too much water when the lower leaves turn yellow and drop off. Brown or black spots may appear or the plant might wilt. To determine the plant's need for water, poke your finger in to root depth -don't just feel the surface. If it feels dry, it's time to water. If it's still moist, check it again in a day or two. When you water, our it on so that the soul becomes saturated and excess water drains out of the drainage holes. let the pot drain for about 15 minutes then discard any water remaining in the saucer or pot reservoir. Dr. Nagai suggest grouping plants together to increase humidity around the plants.

Don Janssen, and extension educator for the University of Nebraska (we're talking "cold" here) stresses cleaning. Dust and grease often accumulate on leaves of houseplants making them unattractive and even slowing growth. Put your babies in the bathtub and bathe them, shower them, then wipe them with a soft cloth. The dust, if left to itself, will clog the pores of the leaves and provide a haven for nasty little bugs. It will also reduce light reception. Large firm-leaved plants have a natural wax and cleaning them makes them shine. So keep your plants clean -they'll feel good an look good and make your house a lot brighter when the temperatures go below freezing.

Note: Apidistra comes from Eastern Asia and belongs to the lily family. It has large, evergreen basal leaves with small, brownish bell-shaped flowers. It's also called "cast iron plant" for its ability to withstand abuse, but when well cared for it does everything a treasured houseplant can do -that is, shine for you through the winter.

WEED WISDOM
by Bill Guinness, Master Gardener, University of Vermont Extension (posted 4/7/03)

DANDELIONS

Every part of this weed can be used! I pick young leaves in the early spring for a green salad. Use plain or in a potato salad. (Chop up dandelion, eggs, potatoes; add vinegar and olive oil. Yum, yum!). Dandelions can also be used as a cooked green with butter, oil or vinegar. For best flavor, don't overcook. The flower buds can be cooked and served with butter, oil or vinegar. The can also be pickled. Roots can be cleaned and roasted. Roots can also be ground up for a coffee substitute. Young roots can be cooked in the same manner as parsnips: boil for twenty minutes, then serve with butter and paprika. And, of course, you can make a very smooth wine. Made right, it can pack a very good wallop! Dandelions are high in protein, calcium, phosphorus, iron, riboflavin, niacin and vitamins A, C and B1. Dandelions were used as a cure for scurvy. Dandelions are a very good spring 'pick-you-up'. The best part is it's free! Where can you get a better deal than that? (Source: "Weed Cookbook" by Adrienne Crowhurst c.1972)

Vitamin content comparison:

COMMON MILKWEED

Many parts of the common milkweed can be used for some nice eating. These parts are the young shoots, unopened flower clusters, open flower clusters and unripe seed pods.

Collect the young shoots in early June. Boil them in salted rapidly boiling water for two minutes. Pour off this water and replace with fresh boiling water. Serve with butter or oil and vinegar - I like a cheese sauce. They melt in your mouth! Use like asparagus in salads, as a side dish, etc.

The unopened flower heads serve like broccoli. Prepare and cook the same way as for young shoots.

Open flower clusters should be boiled for one minute. They can be deep fried like day lily flowers.

Young unripe seed pods should be gathered very small around August 1st. Cook them in boiling water for about twenty minutes. Change the water several times replacing with boiling water. Serve with butter, cream sauce, cheese sauce or sour cream.

The roots can be used as a purgative. They are sometimes used as an emetic -- but that's another subject!

Many recipes call for the use of soda. However, soda removes vitamins and minerals so I don't use soda.

Herbes, Herbs, Erbs
By Josie Rahe, Master Gardener Intern (Bennington Banner 9/20/02) (posted 10/31/02)

The American Herb Society's official definition of "herb" is: "Any plant that can be used for pleasure, fragrance or physic." Herb can be pronounce in two ways with the "h" pronounced or with the "h" silent. Through England and Ancient Rome and Greece, through the bible to the Garden of Eden, the use of herbs spread throughout the world as did belief in their medicinal and magical powers. For me, herbs mean my kitchen window sill, in full sunlight in the middle of winter, in 6" pots.

Culinary herbs used for food preparation like parsley, basil and rosemary will reside this winter on my sunny sill to enhance my stews and sauces. The time to start is now! You can obtain herb seeds locally from herb farms and from farmers markets and garden centers. Buy healthy plants free of insect pests and diseases.

For your winter window sill take a 6" pot for each herb (my sill will accommodate 3) and fill with good potting soil. As a rule of thumb, seeds are sown at a depth of twice the diameter of the seed, but tiny seeds, we learned in Master Gardeners class should be sown on the surface and covered lightly with finely-sifted soil. Firm the soil down and moisten with a fine spray of water.

A tray filled with stones is a good idea for the window sill. Plant your seed and cover the pot with plastic wrap. This literally imitates a miniature greenhouse. add to this the steam from your kitchen and the sun from above and you have a beautiful growing module.

For your kitchen herbs, choose culinary ones -basil, cilantro, parsley, and rosemary. They are so pleasantly scented and add so much to winter food.

It takes a while to start herbs inside, but as soon as you see growth, remove the plastic and watch them take hold. Once they are established, clip a little bit for salads and winter dishes and sauces. Let everyone smell them and guess what they are.

Pots can encourage the artist in you if you paint them brightly and label them with the name of the herb and the date is was planted.

So, if you have a kitchen window that gets winter sun, you are blessed. If you have potted herbs in that window, growing, with snow on the ground outside, you are doubly blessed. And, if you smell basil or rosemary while it is cooking in your kitchen -well, that's as good as it gets.

Remember the old nursery rhyme -Roses are red, violets are blue, Thyme and Sweet Rosemary, Hyssop and Rue. And by the way, in Spring transplant your herbs into the border of your flower beds.

Building Tepees in the Garden
By Josie Rahe, Master Gardener Intern (Bennington Banner 7/20/02) (posted 10/31/02)

When you drive around, look for the many unusual and beautiful ways our gardeners are making use of tepees. No longer just supports for pole beans, they provide a training ground for all sorts of climbing vines and small fruits, and because of their height, provide some beauty for the driver or passerby.

To make a tepee, choose three eight-foot poles. These are available at nurseries and hardware stores. Drive the poles into the ground 12 to 18 inches deep at an angle to be sure that they won't be knocked over by the winds we have been experiencing recently. You can use rocks around the bottom to make them more secure. Bring them together at the top in tepee fashion and lash with metal wire or twine or rope. Now the fun begins.

A fine textured, slow growing vine adds pattern and interest to a garden and a decorative vine possesses flowers, fruit and foliage for interest in various seasons. They are classified by their climbing method -by tendril like the grape, twining like bittersweet or clematis, or clinging like Boston ivy.

We decided we wanted color, so we chose scarlet runner bean and moon vine and started both from seed in late April. The seed germinated rapidly and were ready to be planted in early May. We set the scarlet runner at each pole and the moon vine in the middle and stood back. The scarlet runner is nearly to the top now with deep red blossoms and the moon vine is following the climb with its beautiful white flowers. Moon vine is generally considered an annual. The scarlet runner vine produces pods. We cut the first few and dry them and save the seed to give away or plant anew the next year. A member of the Kennedia family, it is often known as the "running postman."

Another year, or another tepee, I'd like to try trumpet vine, or morning glories, perhaps a climbing hydrangea or dutchman's pipe with its large heart-shaped leaves. I seem many posts with clematis growing and twining upward, dazzling us with their lovely purple, pink blooms.

Building and planting tepees is a great activity to do with children because they will love to help build the tepee as well as choose the seeds. They can have instant gratification because one can almost watch the planting grow day by day. The children need to know, however, that they can't sleep in this particular tepee overnight.

Growing "Love Apples"
By Josie Rahe, Master Gardener Intern (Bennington Banner 6/29/02) (posted 10/31/02)

Whether you pronounce it "tomato" or "tomawto," the first bite of one from your own garden is a thing to remember. Originally cultivated in Mexico and Peru, the tomato is one of the newest plants to be used for human food. When Spanish explorers brought back seed from South America, the plant was grown for ornament and called "love apple." It was commonly regarded as poisonous and only recognized as a valuable food since the 1800s. It now ranks third among our vegetable plants. Numerous varieties from the cherry to the beefsteak are cultivated in nearly all parts of the United States. Technically the tomato is a fruit, although commonly referred to as a vegetable because of its uses.

In our Master Gardener class on vegetables, we learned from the TV personality and UVM Extension lecturer Charlie Nardozzi some of the following hints and tips about tomatoes:

• They must have sun and well-drained, loamy soil with a pH of 6.0-6.8. They like to be warm and moist. They are considered a tender annual, although they are really a perennial.
• They are heavy feeders, needing fertilizers from a starter solution, with side-dressing one to two weeks before the first tomato ripens and again two weeks after the first tomato with a balanced fertilizer.
• Tomatoes require relatively little space for large production. Each tomato plant, properly cared for, yields 10 to 15 pounds or more of fruit. Plenty for the table, plus much more for sauces, juice, and other uses.
• You can start then from seed, but remembering that longing for the first bite, you can get a leg up by buying plants from any of several good nurseries.

Select stocky transplants about six to eight inches tall. Set them in ground covering stems so that only two or three sets of true leaves are exposed. If plants are to be staked or trellised, space them 18 inches apart in rows four feet apart. Staking makes caring for the tomatoes easier than letting them sprawl. Growing tomatoes in wire cages allows the tomato plant to grow in its natural manner but keeps the fruit and leaves off the ground. Be sure to get fencing with at least 6-inch spacing between the wires so that you can get your hand inside to harvest the tomatoes.

Good soil is the very first thing one should consider. Begin by spading the soil to a depth of 8 to 10 inches, removing any rocks, roots or large stones. add organic matter such as rotted manure. If you have clay, the heavier it is, the more organic matter you will need. Rotted manure is the very best.

And then, there are all the things that love tomatoes other than humans. They are subject to diseases such as blight, leafspot, tobacco mosaic virus, bacterial spot, and insects such as flea beetle, hornworm, Colorado potato beetle, fruitworm, aphids, mites, whiteflies and cutworms. There are also cultural problems such as blossom-end rot, irregular soil moisture or calcium deficiency, leaf roll, fruit cracking, and sun scald from lack of foliage cover.

If you need to use a pesticide or herbicide, read the label very carefully and follow the directions just as given, but keeping a sharp eye and monitoring your plants daily helps a lot also. use a power lens to detect bugs, and destroy them before they get started.

One wonders with all these challenges, why we still work to grow tomatoes year after year. Because the first taste of a tomato from your own garden is beyond compare.

Almost Time for Bed
By Josie Rahe, Master Gardener Intern (Bennington Banner 9/7/02) (posted 10/29/02)

The season is approaching when we prepare our beds for the winter season and think about projects for next year. A properly prepared bed is a thing of beauty and even covered with snow, promises great things for spring. Now is the time to review what went right or wrong in the growing season and to correct your soil content, and enrich the soil for the coming year.

I've been working toward a nice sandy loam for my raised beds. In Master Gardener classes on soil and composting we learned that structure is important and is closely related to air and water movement within the soil. Good structure allows rapid movement of air and water and allows extensive root development. It is promoted by an adequate supple of organic matter and by working the soil only when moisture conditions are fitting.

If you are just beginning a garden or if you have had problems, you can start with a soil test. These test kits are available through University of Vermont Extension and are tested at UVM Agricultural Testing Lab. The Basic Test include pH, available minerals and recommendations for one crop. After the test is analyzed, you have all the information you need to improve your soil.

Compost, manures, and other organic amendments are effective and economical for modification. Good sources of organic matter include leaf mould, sawdust and straw which are decomposed by soil organisms. Peat moss is another popular source of organic matter. and one of the best sources to improve your soil is your very own compost pile, a product resembling dark rich soil, spread and incorporated into garden soil. Some plant a cover crop such as ryegrass to be tilled under in the spring. Now is the time to plant cover crops before the first killing frost. They will hold nutrients that might be lost over the winter and help reduce erosion and loss of topsoil.

The first step in preparing your garden beds for winter is to remove all the plantings and roots, shake out the soil and put the roots on your compost pile. Remove any stones. Add organic material and till 8 to 12 inches deep. Turn it over. Add new top soil. Till again. Then take the back of your rake and make the bed smooth. Now it's ready for the MooDoo (manure available at local nurseries) next spring when you will drop in your seeds and stand back.

Soon after you've done this, we will have a cold snap and hopefully be Thanksgiving, a nice coating of snow. Then you can sit by the fire and look at our seed catalogs, choose seeds and imaging what the beds will look like next season. Remember not to plant the same thing in the same bed more than three years in a row and do try something interesting and new to you in both flower and vegetable beds. Being adventurous in your garden can rarely go far wrong, and if it goes right you'll have a wonderful surprise.

When a rose is a rose is a Rose
By Norman Pellett, President of the Hardy Plant Club (Hardy Plant Club Newsletter) (posted 10/29/02)

The following is slightly modified from an article published in Landscape Plant News by Paul E. Cappiello, Bernheim Arboretum and Research Forest, Clermont, Kentucky.

Naming and protection of new plant varieties has rapidly become the current quagmire of American horticulture. Patents, trademarks, and other branding and protection protocols have taken on a life of their own. The following list provides a description of the requirements and protections for each type.

Cultivar Registration: New plant releases should be registered with the appropriate international registration authority (IRA). The IRA is charged with maintenance of a list of all registered varieties (or cultivars) of the species or genera in question. For example, the National Arboretum is the IRA for the genus Vibernum. The IRA will review the description of the new variety and will make recommendations as to uniqueness of cultivar name. Registration of a new release with the appropriate IRA confers no specific legal rights, not is there any requirement to register with the IRA; however, at the present time it is the only method which can potentially provide for maintenance of a complete master list of introduced forms of a particular plant group.

Plant Patent: A plant patent is awarded for unique plant forms developed or discovered in cultivated areas. In order to patent a plant, it should be unique from other similar plants available or previously described. A patentable plant should be the result of an active selection and/or breeding program or it should have been discovered in a cultivated situation. Of course, this immediately removes the possibility of patent protection for a variant found in the wild. several patent attorneys, however, have interpreted the law to allow a naturally occurring variant to be propagated and grown in cultivation, where it would then be selected for patent protection; a minor loophole exploited by some. Plant patents provide the patent holder the legal authority to license growers to propagate and sell their protected varieties. The protection lasts for 20 years ad is nonrenewable. Once the 20-year limit is reached, there is no more potential for collection of patent royalties.

One major stumbling block with plant patents is restriction of the material prior to patent application and award. Once a plant has been distributed, either intentionally or unintentionally, there is typically little chance to successfully patent that plant variety. The exception is if propagules are distributed under a specific evaluation agreement. Such agreements typically require that the evaluating institution not propagate, distribute or allow collection of vegetative portions of the plant in question. If a plant selection is being considered for protection, it is best not to distribute except under a specific agreement. While few woody ornamental plants will sell in sufficient numbers to warrant patent protection, if one is determined to patent a plant it is advisable to err on the side of being a bit overprotective rather than lose the rights to a potentially lucrative introduction.

At the present time, the majority interpretation of patent laws is that a typical plant patent does not protect seedlings or mutations (sports) of a patent protected variety. A much more involved process - a utility patent - can be secured which can provide for protection of a variety and its progeny. Don't bother with this one unless you have lots of spare money to burn.

As for nomenclature, a plant can and should be patented with the same name used to register it with the IRA. The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office maintains a web site that can be used to scan for previously used patent names. It is well worth a scan through this site prior to any naming exercise regardless of intention to patent or trademark.

Trademark Protection: There is no such thing as a plant trademark. In fact, a trademark name is not even part of the product. The purpose of a trademark is to identify source of the material. The product itself does not even have to be unique. What is trademarked is not the plant but the word. Trademarks last as long as the holder is willing to pay the renewal fee every few years. What makes for a great deal of confusion is that a cultivar may not be trademarked and patented under the same name. If a new introduction is registered with the appropriate IRA and patented under the same cultivar name, that name cannot be trademarked. This is why we end up with plants with two fancy names which many refer to as cultivar names.

To make matters worse, there is a difference between a trademark, TM, and a registered trademark. If someone or some company wants to sell a plant variety under a particular unique trademark name, they can simply use the name with the TM symbol with no registration or application process. This trademark affords the holder certain legal rights but is not the same as a registered trademark. The unregistered trademark indication can be used while the registered trademark is being sought. This indicates that the name has been registered with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. It indicates that the name is unique and does not infringe on the trademark rights of other trademark holders.

So how's that for a mess. Now while some may fault some for perpetuating the confusion by patenting and trademarking under different names, it is essentially the system we've been dealt. The legislation has been written and extensively interpreted. The moral of the story from my perspective, unless you are darned sure that you have a 100,000 a year seller, just trade and share. If you do have the big seller, be sure to do your homework up front.

Some Notes on Ornamental Grasses
By Sarah Kingsley-Richards, Master Gardener (posted 8/20/02)

Assembled from notes taken at “Gardening with Ornamental Grasses” presented by Sharon M Webber, Earth Lines, Buffalo NY at the 2002 Northeast Regional Master Gardener Conference, Cornell University, Ithaca NY.

Ornamental grasses are gaining popularity in the garden and landscape. Most ornamental grasses are very hearty, relatively drought resistant, and deer resistant. They add interest when used to punctuate perennial beds, make a fascinating alternative to hedges, look great with water features, and mix well with bulbs. Grasses can add vertical interest and make play of light and shade. They will spring into motion with the slightest breath, bringing the idea of cool to a hot summer garden where anything moving is refreshing.

Grasses are heavy feeders and demand regularly fertilized soil. A clump that is dying in the middle indicates a lack of nutrients. Compost is the preferred fertilizer for ornamental grasses as they do not respond as well with foliar fertilizers. Be careful not to supply an overabundance of nitrogen which will lead to leggy, fragile growth. Propagate in spring and be generous in your division. A good clump of grass will propagate better than a few strands.

When contemplating the addition of ornamental grasses to your garden, several characteristics must be considered.

• Do you want a clumping grass or a running grass?
  • Running grasses spread by rhizomes and make good ground cover but may become invasive.
• Are you looking for year-round interest or summer growth?
  • Warm season grasses (i.e. Miscanthus) are deciduous and must be cut back in the fall or spring.
  • Cold season grasses (i.e. fescue, Calamagrostis) are evergreen.
• What are the site conditions?
  • Grasses love sun but a few will tolerate shade. There are grasses for a wide variety of soil conditions and most are flexible.
• What is your zone?
  • While there are hardy grasses, the majority seem to fall in zone 5 and warmer. Different references will give different zone listings for grasses and it never hurts to try a one in a slightly cooler climate than recommended. With some winter mulching to protect spring shoots, it may be possible to nurse a zone 5 grass in a zone 4 climate.

Some species to consider:

• Arundo donax (giant reed)
  • zone 5, maybe zone 4 with mulch
  • 15’ tall
  • moisture
  • sun
  • not vigorous runner
  • looks rather like corn
  • maroon autumn plume in warmer climes
• Calamagrostis x acutiflora (feather reed grass)
  • zone 5, maybe zone 4 with mulch
  • 4-5’ tall
  • clumping
  • sun-part shade
  • fine texture
  • vertical
  • some cool season tendencies
  • thin June plumes that mature golden
• Carex (sedge)
  • 1’ at most
  • lower growth habit
  • versatile light requirements
  • like moisture
  • neat ground cover
  • 2,000 cultivars
  • flagilifera –brownish
• Chasmanthium latiflolium aka Uniola latifolium (Northern sea oats)
  • zone 5, maybe zone 4 with mulch
  • 3-4’tall
  • reseeds
  • tolerates some shade
  • blooms in July
  • nodding seed heads
  • almost looks like bamboo
• Deschamsia caespitosa (tufted hair grass)
  • zone 5, maybe zone 4 with mulch
  • 1-2’ tall
  • airy foliage
  • somewhat evergreen
• Elymus arenarius aka Leymus arenarius (blue lyme grass)
  • 1.5-2’
  • runner
  • can be very invasive
  • drought tolerant
  • clip back in July
  • oat-like plume
  • steely blue new growth
• Erianthus ravennae aka Saccharum ravennae (Northern plume grass)
  • 12’ tall
  • full sun
  • nice pampas grass substitute in cooler climates
• Festuca (fescue)
  • reseeds
  • all around decent plant, etc.
• Hakonechloa macra (Hakone grass/Japenese forest grass)
  • dicey hardiness -6/5?
  • 1’ tall
  • shady
  • beautiful
  • bright foliage
• Imperata cylindrica (Japanese blood grass)
  • can be very invasive
  • ‘red baron’ cultivar less invasive but cultivars not well monitored
• Molina caerulea (moor grass)
  • zone 6/5
  • 3’ tall
  • clump
  • tolerate part shade
  • July-September
  • doesn’t look great after frost
  • variegated holds up better
• Panicum virgatum (switch grass)
  • easily zone 4
  • 3-5/6’
  • tall clumps
  • sun
  • crown of plumes
• Pennisetum alopecuroides/orientale (fountain grass)
  • 1-4’
  • tolerate part shade
  • soft effect
  • bottlebrush plumes
• Phlaris arundinacea (ribbon grass)
  • infamous invasive runner
  • hardy
  • likes moisture
  • tolerates shade
  • check out ‘strawberries and cream’ cultivar
• Miscanthus sinensis (Chinese silver grass)
  • some zone 4
  • 5-7’ usually
  • can be up to 12’
  • clump
  • tolerates shade
  • heavy feeders
  • not too much nitrogen
  • vase shape
  • fabulous plumes
  • big
  • M. sinensis ‘Gracillimus’ = Maiden grass
  • M. strictus (porcupine grass) is more hardy and more upright than M. sobrinus (zebragrass) but otherwise identical
• Spodiopogon sibericus (frost grass)
  • zone 4/5
  • tolerate part shade
  • underused IMHO
  • bamboo-like foliage
  • reddish orange
  • good specimen
• Isolepis cernua (fiber optic grass)
  • zone 7/8
  • fine texture
  • nice in pots

Suggested references:

The Encyclopedia of Ornamental Grasses: How to Grow and Use over 250 Beautiful and Versatile Plants
by John Greenlee, Derek Fell (Photographer)

Ornamental Grass Gardening: Design Ideas, Functions and Effects
by Thomas A. Reinhardt, Martina Reinhardt, Mark Moscowitz (Contributor)

A Compost Way of Life
By Tatiana Schreiber, Master Gardener Intern (Brattleboro Reformer 7/27/02) (posted 7/23/02)

At a time when we live with threats of terrorist attacks, when many of us fear nuclear contamination if such an attack should occur close to home, when the Western third of our country seems to be drying up and burning up at the same time, and when our nation seems headed into a prolonged state of war against amorphous targets around the globe, why would anyone spend time thinking about something as mundane and local as compost?

I've been thinking about this because, for whatever reason, I've long been a passionate advocate of composting, and take every opportunity to try to persuade, encourage, and cajole others to my compost way of life. Why be passionate about a mess of garbage in you backyard?

Well, lots of reasons really, but I think the fundamental one can be gleaned from the work itsel