ARTICLE INDEX: Click on any title below to jump to that article on this page.

• Battling Garden Pests (Part 1)
• Battling Garden Pests (Part 1)
• Garden Talk: End of August
• Respectful Water Conservation Through Greywater Recycling
• Respectful Water Conservation Through Composting Toilet and Latrine Technology
• Beyond Mow and Blow
• Insects and Gardens, A Bio-rational Truce
• The Future of Disease and Pest Control
• Master Gardeners are a great resource
• Mother's Day Help in Garden
• Japanese Beetles
• Safety in the Garden
• It's spring again!!!
• Growing Citrus as Houseplants
• Vermont Exotic Invasives
• Easy orchid growing
• Welcome friends
• A grape arbor with grapes? In Bennington?
• Conserve energy -landscape
• Garden catalogues to make you dream of spring
• Keep that Aspidistra going
• Weed Wisdom
• Herbes, Herbs, Erbs
• Building Tepees in the Garden
• Growing "Love Apples"
• Almost Time for Bed
• When a rose is a rose is a Rose
• Some Notes on Ornamental Grasses
• A Compost Way of Life
• Hardy Heathers -Hard Scrabble Plants
• Invasive Plants
• A community takes root in Bellows Falls
• Tomato start time is upon us
• Protect transplants from wind and cold
• Savoring Vegetables of the Past
• Defy Mother Nature and Plant out of Season
• Indoor Gardens: A Jump Start on Spring
• The Mighty Empress!
• Certify Your Backyard, It's For the Birds!
• Kindergardening
• Plant a Wildflower Patch
• Sustainable Landscape Design -Part 5
• Sustainable Landscape Design -Part 4
• Master Gardeners: Sprouting up all over Vermont
• Island Pond garden blooms on web
• The French Flowers of Canada!
• A Passion for Peonies
• Gardening tips
• Sustainable Landscape Design -Part 3
• Sustainable Landscape Design -Part 2
• Sustainable Landscape Design -Part 1
• VERMONT NATURE Lichens: Messengers From the Plant World
• VERMONT NATURE Fern Fanfare
• Benefits of Black and Clear Plastic
• Your gardening experiences & some thoughts from MJ
• Harvest your herbs for the holidays and beyond

BATTLING GARDEN PESTS (PART 1)
By Shelley Jurkiewicz, UVM Extension Master Gardener Volunteer (Mountain Gazette, August 18, 2005) (posted 2/13/06)

Whether you grow your plants indoors or outdoors, insect pests always seem to find them. Many times the damage caused by the pests is limited and tolerated by the plant. If this is the case, the insects can be ignored by the gardener. At other times, the gardener must come to the defense of the plant. As a starting point, I would suggest the following two steps.

Step 1: Know your pest. Identify the insect giving you trouble and do some research. Pay particular attention to the life cycle and not the stage(s) when the insect is vulnerable to different control methods. Observe its behavior in your garden. When is it most active? Are there plants in your garden the pest doesn’t touch? Note its seasonal pattern. Is it abundant for a week, causing mass destruction, then disappears?

Step 2: Devise a plan. If you don’t want to spray your entire garden with insecticide, you will likely need to combined pest control strategies. Among the possibilities are barriers, deterrents, traps and biological controls. Keep in mind you probably won’t get rid of every individual, just reduce the numbers to a level where the plants can tolerate them.

For ease of discussion, let’s pick an insect… hmm, how about a grasshopper… and follow the two-step process outlined above.

Step 1: Grasshoppers generally lay their eggs in late summer in the soil, where they overwinter until the weather begins to warm up the next spring. In late spring or early summer, depending on species and the weather, lots of itty bitty grasshoppers hatch. This stage is called a nymph and over the course of the summer the little hoppers will eat, grow, and molt until they are mature and the whole cycle starts over. The egg and young nymph stages are when the grasshoppers are the most vulnerable and, unfortunately, least noticeable.

Now, before we continue, in all fairness to the grasshoppers it should be noted that not all species are pests and they do plan an important role in the ecosystem, providing a rich food source for countless other creatures. But if grasshoppers are eating your favorite heirloom or if the population is out of control, intervention will probably be needed.

Step 2: Devise a plan. Here are some strategies you might want to consider.

Deterrents: Experiment with different natural repellants like soap, garlic, or hot pepper. If you notice a plant in your garden that the grasshoppers don’t touch, say thyme, you might brew a strong tea with it and spray it on the plant(s) they do bother. Ore puree some leaves from a plant they don’t eat, thin it a bit and use it as a spray. Use caution if you try this. You don’t want to sue your kitchen blender to puree plants that are toxic to grasshoppers and humans.

Predators: Grasshoppers have lots of natural predators. Snakes, toads, mice, praying mantis, and skunks are just a few of the animals that eat grasshoppers, though you may not want to invite all of them to your garden. Birds, though, are a great choice. Set out birdhouses to attract nesting pairs of birds (hungry babies will eat lots of grasshoppers). Domestic fowl like guinea hens, chickens, and geese can reduce the grasshopper population, although in my experience chickens will either eat or trample plants in the process.

Next time, we’ll cover a few more strategies, including barriers, biological controls, traps, and limited insecticide use.

BATTLING GARDEN PESTS (PART 2)
By Shelley Jurkiewicz, UVM Extension Master Gardener Volunteer (Mountain Gazette, September 1, 2005) (posted 2/13/06)

Last time, we started a discussion of what you could call “natural” pest control. Selecting a pest at random, we started a survey of potential non-chemical control methods for grasshoppers. With practically no end to the possible solutions, there is one common denominator. To be most effective, control methods need to be used when the grasshoppers are most vulnerable… when they are small. Once they mature to the big, extra-crunchy stage, they are almost indestructible.

Barriers: Cover your plant(s) with row cover or a light screen. A living barrier of cilantro might be effective.

Traps: Bury a jar and fill it with water/molasses mix. Grasshoppers will follow the sweet smell, fall in, and drown (plain water might be an effective trap, too). Plant a “trap crop” away from your main garden where you can attract a large population of grasshoppers and destroy them there.

Biological controls: Grasshoppers are susceptible to the single-celled parasite Nosema locustae. It is available commercially as a bran bait. This form of control has some additional benefit in that grasshoppers will consume the bodies of other dead grasshoppers, and in turn be infected by the parasite.

Diatomaceous earth: A powder of diatom shells – the sharp edges of the shells can cut the soft exoskeleton of young grasshoppers and make them susceptible to dehydration. While it is not toxic to humans, you should take precautions to avoid inhaling the powder.

Limited insecticide use: If you don’t want to do a general insecticide application, consider one of the following methods. Carbaryl-laced bran is available as a bait. In this form, exposure to the insecticide would be limited to the chewing type insects. Spraying insecticide on only those plants attacked by the grasshoppers would also limit the exposure of beneficial insects to the insecticide.

Cultivation: Turn your soil in the fall and destroy/expose some grasshopper eggs to decrease you population for next year.

The suggestions above are a sampling of possible grasshopper controls. All that is left for a gardener to do is choose a method or combination of methods, try it, and watch. While it is sometimes exasperating dealing with garden pests (especially if you are depending on your garden for food or income), it can provide a gardener with the opportunity to practice their detective skills… C.S.I. in the garden.

GARDEN TALK: END OF AUGUST
By Elaine Nordmeyer, Master Gardener (Rutland Tribune, August 24, 2005) (posted 2/13/06)

At the end of August, you can buy perennials at bargain prices. The same goes for trees and shrubs. If you plant them well and give them plenty of water, they will reward you next summer. Garden centers are practically giving away annuals this time of year. Take advantage of these bargains to brighten up your late summer gardens. For example, Icicle pansies can add color, and fill in bare spots in your flower garden at this time of the year, and will be there blooming early in the spring. Look for them to be available around Fair time.

If your hanging baskets are looking sad, you can cut them back, add some time release fertilizer, and water them well. Remember to use organic fertilizer if you are planning on dumping those hanging baskets into your compost at the end of the season. Most other plants and flowers should not be fertilized any more now, because new growth would be too tender to survive the winter.

Early August is a good time to sow seeds for lettuce, spinach, chard, radishes, and the like. I have my late crop of sugar snap peas coming up now. you have plenty of time left for a good crop, but may have a difficult time finding seeds. Incidentally, those tiny morning glory seeds you planted early in the season, are now coming into their full bloom.

Roses, however, tend to get black spots or other fungus this time of year. It is important to remove the affected leaves, and keep the healthy area around them cleared of dead and diseased leaves. You can also spray them with fungicide. Also, if the Japanese beetles are getting on your roses, I find that best thing to do is pick them off the bushes. I use an empty plastic milk gallon with the top cut off, leaving an opening about four or five inches wide. Put a little water and dish detergent in the milk jug, and holding the handle, simply knock them into the container. If they tend to fly away from the jug, the put some ice cubes into the water to stun them. A friend told me about this clever trick. This is a very helpful way to involve children or grandchildren in garden fun!

If not already, think about becoming a Master Gardener. The class will begin again in the spring. You will learn a great deal about gardening and related subjects in the series of classes, and you will be given resource materials as well. If interested, please contact: Vermont Master Gardener, UVM Extension, 655 Spear St., Burlington 05405-0107, or phone: 1-802-656-9562, or e-mail: master.gardener@uvm.edu.

RESPECTFUL WATER CONSERVATION THROUGH GREYWATER RECYCLING
By Steven G. Herbert (American Dowser 44(2):33-38 Spring 2004) (posted 2/7/05)

When a dowser locates water, it is a gift to have that ability, and it is a gift of the Earth to allow its lifeblood to be taken. Isn’t it the least we can do to see that that water is used conservatively, respectfully and sustainably? In the Sring 2003 issue, we discussed how this ideal can be partly achieved through eliminating the flush toilet and adopting composting toilet and latrine technology. While this deletes the blackwater componant, what we have left is greywater, or the remaining household wastewater that comes from washers, sinks, showers and tubs. In this issue, we will look at how greywater can be constructively and locally disposed of by directing it to landscape plants, mulch basins and wastewater gardens.

Water is a sacred and miraculous substance. It composes roughly 70% of the body in which it regulates critical biochemical processes, and carries life energy. This precious liguid has memory, as any homeopathic practitioner can tell you, and can also be imprinted with the intent of the human mind or will. Attitude can be imprinted also. Respect can make it holy, or taking if for granted as a mere commodity for waste removal can sap its vitality. With water resources already strained, water use rising twice as fast as population, and population projected to double in the next forty years, the Earth’s lifeblood will inevitably enforce a greater respect for itself.

Respect can begin at home by at least returning it to the earth in a way that can nurture the environment. Nutrients which would have otherwise been wasted are reclaimed, and the water is much more effectively purified in the upper, most biologically active layers of the soil, then in the conventional septic tank and leachfield system. Where one is connected to a municipal system, it means less energy used to process the waste, fewer chemicals used in treatment, and less tax dollars needed to be spent.

Planning a greywater recycling system begins by accessing whether conditions on the property are right. The yard must first of all be big enough to accommodate the distribution of waste water, and in a way that doesn’t create health risks. The soils must be sufficiently permeable and unsaturated. Special adaptations are needed in the freezing temperatures of temperate climates. Plumbing inside the house must be assessable to allow reconfiguration. Local and state laws must be accomadating. And finally, the user must be aware that such a system requires greater management responsibility, and be willing to take that responsibility.

A large part of this responsibility involves being careful what goes into or does not go into the water. Traditional household cleaning products contain a host of toxic chemicals harmful to both human health and the environment. Most if not all of these can be replaced using recipes made from some combination of the following more benign products: baking soda, borax, essential oils, glycerin, hydrogen peroxide, liquid vegetable-based soaps and detergents, vinegar and washing soda (sodium carbonate). Safer and healthier alternatives can also be purchased from companies such as Seventh Generation.

Even with greywater free of toxic substances, there are cases where greywater reuse is not advised. Even though there is no documented case of anyone ever becoming sick from greywater in the US, one should still avoid direct contact or consumption. Greywater should not be applied to foliage, or especially to fruits and vegetables that are eaten raw, because of microorganisms that may be left behind. Watering the lawn with greywater is not advised for the same reason (except with drip tubing below ground), especially with a sprinkler system where evaporating droplets can leave behind harmful microorganisms that can be inhaled. Remember also that greywater becomes blackwater after only one day. Thus greywater reuse is not advised in conventional flush toilets where water might sit in the tank for longer than 24 hours. Greywater should not be allowed to flow directly into creeks or streams. It should be discharged below ground into a mulch or gravel basin, where it can then percolate through the soil. Even then, it should satisfy the same setback requirements as septic tank to well.

Most water kept toxin-free that emerges from the home is relatively safe for the environment with a couple of exceptions. The most problematic utility in the average home is the automatic dishwasher. Conventional dishwashing compounds have high pH and salt content. Unfortunately, alternative cleaning products don’t clean well. And depending on degree of pre-rinsing, the waste water may have a high quantity of solids. Also, softened water and water softener backwash is high to extremely high in salt.

As a rule of thumb, 55 gallons per person per day is used in the average home without water-conserving fixtures, which could cut this down to as low as 40. Your automatic dishwasher uses 5 to 10 gallons per load. The washing machine uses 30 to 50 gallons per load in a top loader, compared to 10 gallons for a front-loader. An average person uses 10 to 20 gallons per shower, and 40 for an adult bath. One to five gallons per person per day goes down the bathroom sink and five to fifteen gallons per day down the kitchen sink per average American. Each American uses three times the water of his European counterpart, and fifteen times as much as the typical citizen of the developing world.

My host family in Siguatepeque, Honduras use a system typical of that in the Third World. Dishes are washed on a screened-in ledge outside the kitchen window. The water drains down a gutter past a row of plants. The shower and wash-basin drain to water the banana trees. Basically, this illustrates the principle that ideally the water from each fixture should water its own separate area outside the home. The major difference is that in the northern regions of the US, inside plumbing should include three-way diverter valves such that greywater can be diverted into the conventional septic system during the winter months.

There are several safer and more legal alternatives to the open-gutter greywater distribution system typical of the developing world. One of them is the branched drain, which works well where there is a continuous and even slope away from the house. This system features hard plumbing with one or more “double-ells” splitting the flow, buried in the ground. Alternatively, one might use flexible PVC laying on the surface of the ground which can be manually moved periodically as required. In both cases, the greywater exits into a mulch basin or mini-leachfield. Distributing to drip-irrigation tubing is not advised unless that water can be finely filtered and put under pressure (5 to 10 psi minimum). It is debatable whether a grease-trap installed under the kitchen sink is worth the trouble. Perhaps more advisable is the inclusion of a fine particle filter to capture synthetic fibers coming out of the washer.

It is perhaps the washing machine which is the most problematic fixture to plumb for greywater recycling. Washer water can be distributed directly to the landscape through flexible PVC, but the washer pump life will likely be shortened due to the extra load, hot water could scald your plants, or the washer may siphon waste water back in. Letting the washer water fill an auxillery 55-gallon drum solves all these problems. The inlet to the drum could have a filter bag made of a nylon stocking. The drum itself could be drained by gravity or by means of a sump pump.

At the end point of the drain one has many options. A mulch basin features rocks around the end of the pipe draining into a shallow pit filled with a mulch such as shredded bark. In a mini-leachfield, the drain enters an inverted flower pot half-buried into a mulch or gravel-filled rectangular pit. A box trough with a removable lid is constructed of redwood or cedar boards. The water enters and falls against a splash block before it drains into the ground. A leaching chamber is like a larger version of the mini-leachfield. An eco-chamber is a short length of 6” to 12” PVC pipe, ends capped with redwood disks, holes in the disks stuffed with decorticated redwood bark to discourage roots from entering. An infiltration bed is a rectangular pit filled with layers of, from bottom to top; stones, wire screen, gravel, sand, top soil, and mulch, supplied by an infiltration pipe. One can also supply distribution cones (buried inverted flower pots) with ½” drip line. With both infiltration pipe and dripline, greywater needs to be filtered and pressurized. The infiltration bed would be the likely choice to install in a greywater greenhouse, an attractive alternative in temperate climates.

The constructed wetland can be a seasonal option in temperate climate and a year-round solution in warmer climes. An area is excavated to an open depth and lined with a waterproof membrane. At one end, greywater enters a half-pipe surrounded by 1 ½” to 3” rock. At the other end, treated water exits. In between, aquatic plants planted in ½” to 1’ gravel do the treatment.

Of course, one can also opt for lower tech but more labor intensive alternatives such as “cascading”. This refers to running a garden hose out the bathroom window to drain the tub, saving shower warm up water to flush the toilet, or carrying the dishpan water out to water the flowers. At the other end of the spectrum, one can choose a much easier but much more expensive automated system such as a sand filtration to subsurface drip irrigation.

The divine gift to locate water ought to go hand in hand with respect for this precious and sacred substance and a sense of responsibility that it is sustainably managed. In addition to converting to a composting toilet, recycling greywater is another way. Once one has determined the property is suitable for such a system, and is committed to the greater responsibility of managing it, then there are various designs to choose from. Ideally, greywater from each fixture is individually directed to a separate mulch basin or mini-leachfield on the landscape. Alternatively, it can be channeled more centrally to infiltration beds in a greenhouse or a constructed wetlands. Centralized sewage treatment is expensive, chemical and energy-intensive, and our dependency on this and other parts of the grid make us vulnerable. Treating greywater locally and giving back to the earth is the sane alternative.

Steve Herbert is an earth scientist, transpersonal anthropologist, and international dowser. He is an eighteen year member of ASD and Secretary of the Water for Humanity Fund. He invites your inquiries and comments at P.O. Box 824, Colchester, VT 05446, by cell phone (603) 616-7872, or email at waterdowser@hotmail.com.

REFERENCES
Ludwig, Art Create an Oasis With Greywater: Your Complete Guide to Choosing, Buiding and Using Greywater Systems 1994 Oasis Design: Santa Barbara, CA
Logan, Karen Clean House, Clean Planet

RESPECTFUL WATER CONSERVATION THROUGH COMPOSTING TOILET AND LATRINE TECHNOLOGY
By Steven G. Herbert (American Dowser 43(2):11-18 Spring 2003) (posted 2/7/05)

If a terrorist group were to devise a way to bring American to its knees and have a good laugh at the same time, what would be the best way to do that? I submit they would decide to shut down the grid, and leave Americans unable to flush their toilets. But considering an alternative to the flush toilet and centralized sewage treatment centers is not just a good idea to make us less vulnerable to terrorist attacks. It is also an environmental advantage with respect to water conservation, at the same time that it affords the element of water its due respect. Offered here is an outline and a guideline to the decisions one must make in selecting or designing a dry or composting toilet or latrine system.

Per capita consumption of water in the US is three times that of the average European and fifteen times that of the typical person residing in a developing country. By some estimates, of all the potable water that comes into the average American household, fully a third gets flushed down the toilet. With worldwide average consumption rates rising twice as fast as population, and population projected to double in forty years, its plain to see that soon flushing will be a luxury we can no longer afford. As dowsers who locate water, with our gift comes responsibility to promote sustainable use of this precious resource.

Only a fraction of one percent of the earth’s total water supply is available for use, and these reserves are already strained. Surface supplies are shrinking while water tables lower. Groundwater is being withdrawn faster than it can be replenished. Such unsustainable water use can also have political repercussions as well as environmental. Eighty nations now have serious water problems which will become severe within twenty years. Twenty two countries depend upon other nations for a majority of their water. One hundred and twenty river systems in the world flow through two or more countries. The Niger, for example, flows through ten. Some say the next major war could be fought over water, not oil. We have already in some places seen the price of water rise higher than oil.

Beyond the obvious necessity for responsible use of a precious commodity, is needed a new attitude of respect for a truly miraculous and sacred substance. Several attributes about water make life on earth possible. It is the only substance, for example, which becomes less dense upon freezing. Also it is the only material that passes through the three stages of gas, liquid and solid within the temperature range that living organisms can tolerate. But it is perhaps its electrical and energetic properties that make it most mysterious. As such, it is a powerful solvent, which is important to biological processes. Beyond this it is a carrier of life force within the body. Water has a memory, which is the principle upon which homeopathy works. By this quality water can become blessed and act as a powerful healing force. What are we doing to water by disrespectfully depositing our waste in it?

Supplies may be increased by dowsing for live water, rainwater harvesting or desalinization, but we can show our respect most by conserving it in the first place. Agricultural practices may loose up to half its irrigation water in the process of distribution to evaporation and runoff. More efficient methods such as drip irrigation can make a big difference. Industry can potentially save a lot through water reuse. Within the home, more efficient washers, dishwashers and low-flush toilets can reduce significantly. The practice of “cascading”, or reusing dishpan or shower warm-up water in the toilet bowl or on outside plants can save more. But the biggest savings can be realized by eliminating flushing altogether.

Once committed to the idea of a dry or composting toilet, the first decision to be made is whether to purchase a pre-manufactured unit or have one custom built into the home. There are many brands to choose from; Clivus Multrum, Phoenix, CTS, Envirolet, Sun Mar, Nature-Loo, Rota-Loo, VERA, or Biolet, etc. These can be purchased directly from the manufacturer or from a dealer such as Jade Mountain in Boulder, Colorado (see Resources at end of article). Prices range widely depending on the type of system purchased.

Whether one chooses to purchase a pre-manufactured unit or contract one to be site built, the next decision is whether to have a self-contained unit or one which is centralized/remote. The former is easily portable such as one might have in a camp or hunting lodge, where there is no basement and use is seasonal or sporadic. A centralized system features a permanently mounted stool with the composting unit remotely placed in the basement or floor below.

Self-contained units come with a variety of features, needing only to be hooked up to a venting system. Some designs may be fully adequate for year-round continual use. They may be single or multi-chambered, require electricity for heating and aeration or be totally non-electric. Models are available which dehydrate or incinerate the contents, but these are not truly composting. One may also opt for a home-made unit such as a sawdust toilet built of plywood and using an ordinary five-gallon plastic bucket (see Joseph Jenkins’ Humanure Handbook, pages 179 to 188). Starting with a little sawdust in the bottom of a bucket placed under the toilet seat, a scoop of rotted sawdust cover material is deposited after every use. When full the contents are transported to a composting area.

The third design decision is whether your composting toilet will have a single vault or multiple chambers. Among pre-manufactured self-contained systems, if the unit is to be used continuously, especially by a family, then a multi-chambered model is pretty much a necessity. The centralized Clivis Multrum system by contrast, features a large continuous-use single vault. In this design, fresh material is deposited on top, and finished compost is removed from the bottom of an inclined chamber. In practice, however, liquids may continually percolate through the entire contents, such that one may not be entirely sure of the safety of the finished product. Most pre-manufactured remote systems, unfortunately, are only offered in a single vault option. This is why a custom-built, double-vault alternate-use or multiple-chamber rotating-use system is recommended.

All the composting latrines I designed and built in Africa and Central America ere double-vault, fixed-batch systems. Each vault, made out of cement or brick, had one cubic meter and a half capacity, enough for a large extended family or small school. A stool or stoop plate was mounted over each vault. It might take as much as a year to fill up one, at which time the use is switched to the second, leaving the contents of the first to “cure” undisturbed. By the time the second vault is filled at the end of the following year, the first is ready to be dug out and reused. I was in Africa long enough to see the finished product from my original prototype. It looked like dark and rich chocolate cake.

There are alternatives, however, to dual vaults built permanently side by side. Another variation is a composting unit with multiple chambers which can rotate each time one is filled. Also, a single stationary unit may be designed to accept removable bins. In any case, the composting unit must be designed to manage, whether passively or actively, several key factors. These are: oxygen levels, temperature, moisture, Carbon to Nitrogen levels, and of course, pathogen levels. If all is operating ideally, the contents should be fully composted with all pathogens destroyed by the end of six weeks. Therefore, when calculating the capacity of each vault, to be safe, one should figure the time to fill it as a minimum of twice this, or three months.

Certain factors should be considered when making these calculations. Will the use be seasonal or year-round? Will it be mainly day-use only or continuous (day use tends to accumulate a much higher percentage of urine by comparison)? Here are the relevant statistics you will need. One person produces 40.6 fluid oz.s (1.2 liters) of urine per day. The same person also produces 20.3 fluid oz.s (.61 liters) per day of feces. Over a full year, that amounts to 155.8 gallons of urine and 57.9 gallons of feces, or a total of 1,300 lbs. of excrement. In terms of volume, that represents 20.8 cubic feet (.6 m3) of urine and 7.7 cubic feet (.2 m3) of feces per average person per year. Keep in mind that the volume of the contents will constantly decrease during the composting process. In fact, the volume will decrease to as much as ten to thirty percent of its original volume by the end of the incubation period.

In the tropical climates of Africa and Central America, all the units I built were designed to operate passively, requiring minimal management. In temperate climates, the design may need to be more of an active one. This means a small electric fan installed needed to increase the efficiency of aeration, and an artificial heat source built in to keep the contents above “biological zero” (42 degrees F) and speed composting. For every ten degrees C rise in temperature, the composting rate doubles. This is known as “the Q10 temperature coefficient”. Different microorganisms operate at different temperatures. From 42 to 67 degrees F, actinomycetes and fungi dominate in psychrophilic or mouldering processing. At 68 to 112 degrees F, mesophilic bacteria operate under most typical conditions. Ranging 113 to 160 degrees F, thermophilic bacteria take precedence.

The reason for aerating is partly to evaporate liquids, but most importantly to encourage aerobic decomposition. It is the anaerobic bacteria which are mainly the pathogenic and odor-causing microorganisms. Beneficial aerobic bacteria thrive in the higher oxygen and temperature levels which destroy the anaerobic organisms. If a composting unit is operating efficiently and is well ventilated, there should be no noticeable odor detectable from above. The amount of electricity required to operate the fan and heat source is not great, and may well be powered by a solar panel.

Your next major design decision is whether to separate out urine or not. There are several advantages to separation. One is that it reduces moisture levels in the composter contents, hopefully to the ideal consistency of a well wrung out sponge. Second is that prevents the ratio of Nitrogen to Carbon from becoming too high. This is another cause of odors. Third is that it may virtually eliminate the amount of effluent you need to deal with (usually collected in a basal pan), otherwise by means of an evaporator. Urine separated out may be directed to an outside charcoal or limestone-filled soakpit (as in the case of my latrines). It may also be directed to the conventional septic system, an evaporator, added to the greywater, or stored in a tank. The tank may be emptied periodically by a collection service, or used on trees, flowers or other non-food plants. Human urine is relatively sterile and actually has more nutrients than the feces, but it also has a high salt content. Urine-separating seats may be purchased to mount on your custom-made bench, or the entire bowl can be ordered if preferred. When seated, the urine is directed forward to be captured and drained separately. Women will find it more difficult to master but eventually do become accustomed to it. For men, it is advised to install a separate waterless urinal to supplement the composting toilet.

When beginning to use your new composting toilet for the first time, it is recommended that you cover the bottom of the composting vault with a few inches of good compost or rich soil. This adds the beneficial organisms that “inoculate” the system. It also provides a medium for liquids to soak into. After each use, it is also a good idea to get into the habit of using a “dry flush” material. The best recipe is one part compost or good soil to one part ashes and one part a dry carbon material such as straw, wood shavings, or bean chaff, etc. The carbon material helps prevent compaction of the contents and thus encourages aeration. Aeration may be further encouraged by interior mixers, grates, air channels, etc. However, these tend to be in the way when removing contents and present a maintenance nightmare if they need repair. Usually their liabilities outweigh benefits. Just remember, “one scoop per poop”, to cover fresh deposits and this will probably aerate adequately.

In a centralized or remote system, the toilet seat or bowl needs to be mounted directly over the composting chamber with an average ten inch diameter drop pipe installed vertically for a straight shot. For any supplemental bathrooms in the house, one might consider a micro-flush toilet which would allow the plumbing to take a more circuitous route to the common composting chamber. It is advised that you construct the inside of your composting chamber with a slightly sloped cement floor so that leechate may drain forward to a collection device. Radiant heat may be designed into this floor. Otherwise, a submersible aquarium heater, a light bulb in a fire-proof box, or waste heat from a dryer duct may warm the contents. Build the unit a foot or so off the floor in case of flooding, and naturally, install an access port for removing contents and another for inspection or raking/turning contents.

The laws in most states are sill not very sympathetic towards this technology. Yet I feel it is the wave, even the necessity of the future. In most cases you will be required to have a conventional, or at least a reduced septic tank and leach-field, to handle greywater and for resale purposes. If you are fortunate, this technology may enable you to avoid building an expensive mound system. In any case, if you can get it approved by an engineer or site tech, your state or municipality may approve it also.

There are many advantages that a single home composting toilet and accompanying greywater recycling system has over a conventional septic tank/leechfield or centralized sewerage treatment plant. The septic tank is a very inefficient composter which is dominated by anaerobic organisms. It acts mainly as a settler, and the effluent that reaches the leach-field is still laden with pathogenic organisms and toxic household chemicals. The risk to groundwater supply is obvious. The massive infrastructure required to centrally treat sewage uses high amounts of energy, large quantities of more chemicals, and a sizable chunk of your tax dollars. The result is a sludge, or euphemistically “biosolid”, that must be land-filled as waste, incinerated to create pollution, or land-applied at considerable risk. Doesn’t it make more sense to process “waste” at its source, and create a valuable product we can give back to the earth?

In conclusion, adopting composting toilet technology makes sense and has many advantages. Besides making us less vulnerable to terrorist attacks by decentralizing, composting toilets are a significant means of water conservation. By their use, we show due respect to the miraculous and sacred substance which water is. Whether one adopts a pre-manufactured unit or custom designs a site-built model, there are several features which must be considered to decide which best suits your particular circumstances. What is recommended here is a centralized or remote, double-vault fixed-batch or multiple-chamber rotating batch, urine-separating system. Its elements must be designed to, whether passively or actively, manage oxygen levels, temperature, moisture, C to N ratios, and pathogen levels. Such a system has many advantages environmentally and fiscally over centralized sewerage treatment facilities, and even over individual conventional septic tank and leach-field systems. Laws at present do not generally recognize this, but the trend will be toward more favorability as water conservation becomes an even more pressing need. Look for an article on greywater recycling in the next issue.

Steve Herbert is an earth scientist, transpersonal anthropologist and international dowser. He is an eighteen year member of ASD and is Secretary of the Water for Humanity Fund. He can be reached at P.O. Box 824, Colchester, VT 05446, by cell phone at (603) 616-7872, or by email at waterdowser@hotmail.com.

REFERENCES
Baumgartner, Rhetta Jacobson Water: The Stuff of Life. American Dowser 32(2):9-11
Jenkins, Joseph C. The Humanure Handbook. 1999 Grove City, PA: Jenkins Publishing
Montaigue, Fen Water Pressure. National Geographic September 2002 202(3):2-33
Simon, Paul Tapped Out: The Coming World Crisis in Water and What We Can Do About It. 1998 US: Welcome Rain Publishers
Steinfeld, Carol and David Del Porto The Composting Toilet System Book : A Practical Guide to Choosing, Planning and Maintaining Composting Toile Systems, An Alternative to Sewer and Septic Systems. 1990
Utne Reader The drying game. Der Spiegal May 25, 1992 in UR May/June 1993
Van der Ryn, Sim The Toilet Papers 1978 Santa Barbara: Capra Press

RESOURCES
The Center for Ecological Pollution Prevention (CEPP), P.O. Box 1330, Concord, MA 01742-1330
Sustainable Strategies, P.O. Box 1313, 50 Beharrell St., Concord, MA 01742-01313 (978) 369-9440 sustainable@aics.net www.ecological-engineering.com
Biolet USA, Inc., Suite 4B, Damonmill Square, Concord, MA 01742 (800) 5BIOLET
Clivus Multrum, Inc., 104 Mt. Auburn St., 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02138-5051 (617) 491-0051
“CTS” Toilet Composting Toilet Systems, P.O. Box 1928, Newport, WA 99156-1928 (509) 447-3708
Envirolet Composting Toilet, Sancor Industries Ltd., 140-30 Milner Ave, Scarborough, Ontario M1S 3R3 Canada
Jade Mountain, Inc., P.O. Box 4616, Boulder, CO 80306 (800) 442-8266
“Phoenix” Composting Toilet, Advanced Composting Systems, 195 Meadows Road, Whitefish, MT 59937
Sun-Mar Composting Toilet, Sun-Mar Corporation, 5035 N. Service Road, C-9, Burlington, Ontario L7L 5V2 Canada
VERA/Eco-Tech Carousel, ECOS?Water Conservaton Systems, Suite 4 Damonmill Square, Concord, MA 01742 (800) 462-3341

BEYOND MOW AND BLOW
A report written from notes recorded at a lecture presented by Steven M. Cohan, PhD, Professor at University of Maryland, at the 2004 Northeast Master Gardener Regional Conference in Baltimore, Maryland. Dr. Cohan trains managers for large landscape companies. (posted 1/11/05)

Management includes maintenance and sustenance. Keep all plants healthy. For example, healthy pine trees have been shown to have thicker sap than stressed ones, so as to deter insects. Healthy plants can produce their own deterrents to pests and diseases. For example, we use pyrethrum and rotenone, extracted from plants.

More coated fertilizers will be available.
Lower toxicity products will be available.

TURF:
• Anything over 10 acres requires a nutrient management program. Some states are enacting legislation toward this end.
• Soil testing should be done. Aim for 6.5-7.00.
• Use grass varieties suitable for climate and local geography (drainage). Fescues have deep root systems, tolerate dry conditions and green up after dormancy brought on by heat and drought. The new fescues are fine-leaved and tough.
• Aeration should be done every few years, accompanied by overseeding.
• Lime applications are needed as indicated by soil test results to maintain proper pH.
• Irrigate as needed.
• Thatch removal is needed more with warm climate grasses.
• Leaving mower clippings on the lawn means less other fertilization is needed.
• Herbicides can be used to keep turf healthy, and are a must for open fields.
• Plant growth regulators are growth retardents sprayed onto turf to reduce the number of mowing times needed. They are considered non- toxic and environmentally safe.

SHRUBS:
• Mulch properly. Use only 3-4 inches, keep mulch away from stems, root crowns.
• Use the proper plant in the proper place.
• Find low maintenance shrubs.
• Provide good drainage.
• Watch for twining roots, especially at planting time, and trim off.
• Amend the soil in the planting hole with native soil mix.
• Fertilizer not needed at planting time.
• Foundation plantings can become sick from alkalinity leaching from the cement. They may also be on hardpan.

TREES:
• Similar to shrubs, with some additions.
• Stake at planting time if in a really exposed area. Remove stakes after one year. Movement of the tree actually helps the root system develop.
• Prune only for crossover branches, broken branches, or to develop strong scaffolding branches (those attached to the trunk with wide angles). Inclusions are narrow crotches with bark in them, and make for weak branches that split off.
• Pruning at the proper time and with proper cuts is important.
• Oxins are hormones that get transferred to the lateral growth buds when the apical bud is pruned out.
• Microrhyzae form a symbiotic relationship with the root system to enhance water uptake and root growth density. Best to have the microrhyzae native to the site. Only if you have a sterile soil site, due to construction, maybe, would it be useful to buy and add microrhyzae. Even then, they would not survive without a lot of added organic matter. Microrhyzae are rendered inactive by excesses of phosphorous in the soil.

Microinjection is the term used for the process of injecting insecticide into the trunk flare.

Diagnostic procedures now include air spading, which means using a hose with a high-pressure air stream to blow away soil to expose girdling roots or other problems. This can also be used to excavate soil around the roots in a shallow radial pattern or a deeper vertical pattern so loam can be added to poor soil.

Enhancements of Landscapes
• Renovations of landscapes are up to 30% of the volume of work done by companies now.
• New installations are also important. Look for certified technicians who have been trained.
• Plan for seasonal color displays by interplanting for texture, height, bloom period, leaf color.

Phytoremediation is the term meaning using plants as purifiers.

The George Ball Co. in Chicago has a display/trial garden complex that is spectacular to visit in July.

INSECTS AND GARDENS, A BIO-RATIONAL TRUCE
A report written from notes taken at a presentation by Eric Grissell, research entomologist with the FDA, at the 2004 Northeast Regional Master Gardener Conference in Baltimore, Maryland. (posted 1/11/05)

Try not to use the terms “good” and “bad” when speaking of insects. For instance, the European earwig is a predator. It stays on the ground and feeds on soft-bodied insects and eggs. Leave mulch on the ground for them to stay where they belong. Wasps, though humans dislike having them around, are great larvae predators. Ladybugs congregate in peoples’ homes in winter, but are well known for their beneficial predation of aphids.

An insect may provide different services at different stages of its life. The larval stage of many butterflies and moths (caterpillars) are eating machines and destroy their host plants. But the adult stage turns out to be valuable for pollinating other plants, even though it is done accidentally as they feed. Both the larval and the adult stages of butterflies and moths are valuable in the food chain. Predators, such as birds, frogs, bats, lizards and more need them. The dreaded mosquito supplies food during its larval stage to hummingbirds, dragonflies, frogs and fish. These are just several examples of the complex diversity that needs to remain balanced to keep going. Without the prey, predators cannot survive.

Insects aid in recycling dead matter. Dung beetles bury and use dung to feed their newly hatching young. Carrion beetles actually can bury a carcass by excavating beneath it until it sinks into the hole, then laying eggs on it and covering it. Bottle flies lay eggs on carrion so hatching larvae have food, thus cleaning up the carcass. Termites and ants carry dead matter underground. The list can go on and on.

Pollination of plants is vital, and insects do most of the pollination. Bees are the most abundant pollinators, with the solitary bees becoming more and more important. They are usually host specific. “Accidental pollinators” are named as such because they are nectar feeders and simply bump into pollen as they visit plant to plant. These include butterflies, wasps, beetles and other nectar feeders.

Insects can become problems for several reasons.
• They can be imported to an area with no natural enemies, and thus can overpopulate.
• They can take advantage of a monoculture of plants and overpopulate.
• They can take advantage of human use of chemicals that destroy their enemies.
• The can take advantage of a loss of habitat diversity.
• They can take advantage of poor plant health

The main message here is that a normal situation includes a community of plants and plant feeders, a complex diversity that is circular and interdependent on each of its parts. Destroying one part upsets the delicate balance and then needs more and more intervention to try to get back to balance.

Suggested reading:
• Eisenberg, Evan, “The Ecology of Eden”
• Lutz, Frank, “A Lot of Insects”
• Owen, Jennifer, “Garden Life”
• Thompson, Porter, “The Self-Sustaining Garden”

THE FUTURE OF DISEASE AND PEST CONTROL (posted 1/11/05)
Written by from notes recorded at a lecture presented by Dr. Kenneth Horst, Professor Emeritus, Cornell University, research specialist in virus diseases. Dr. Horst is now with AGRITECH, a company formed by Churchill and Dwight (Arm and Hammer Baking Soda) to research and market pesticides and fungicides. The lecture was part of the 2004 Northeast Regional Master Gardener Conference in Baltimore, Maryland.

The main thrust of present research is aimed at finding biocompatible control at the level of the host-pathogen interaction.

Dr. Horst gave a thumbnail sketch of the history of the use of chemicals to combat pests and diseases:
• Sulfur was already in use in 1000 B.C. as found in the writings of Homer.
• Copper Sulfate came into use in 1862 on roses and in 1882 on grapes. (Bordeaux mixture was originally used to keep people from stealing grapes)
• DDT was used in the 1940’s during WWII by the GI’s to control body lice. It was also used to control mosquitoes carrying malaria. Related maneb, zaneb, and captan are still in use today.
• 1960’s brought about “Silent Spring” by Rachel Carson, and in the 1970’s the EPA was born.
• 1996 gave us the FGPA-Food Quality Protection Act
• 2001-Diazinon taken off the market

The next ten years will see less toxic chemical treatments.

Bicarbonates have been shown to affect the pH and provide desiccation and other direct action on cell membranes of funguses, such as powdery mildew, downy mildew and botrytis. They require sticker-spreaders to be effective.

Potassium carbonate (baking powder) has shown better results than sodium carbonate (baking soda). It was shown to destroy powdery mildew even after the host was infected. There may be some residual brown mottling on the host. Downy mildew and botrytis can also be treated. The products now available are marketed with the following names: Americarb, Agricure (may also be named Green Cure), Remedy, Milstop. They all include the carbonate mixed with a sticker-spreader.

Master Gardeners are a great resource
By Peggy Stattel, Master Gardener (Rutland Herald, June 19, 2004) (posted 8/25/04)

So your garden is all planted, maybe more than once because of hail, frost, too much or not enough rain, insects, bunnies, deer or whatever pesky pests that can cause havoc in a short period of time.

If we had a perfect world, all our plants would look just like the ones in those flashy seed catalogs. No thanks. True Vermont gardeners love the challenge. There are bragging rights in growing exceptional vegetables and flowers despite the weather and critters.

If you do have garden questions or plant problems, you can always call the Master Gardener Helpline at (800) 639-2230. The Master Gardener program has been in Vermont for about 13 years. It is part of a nationwide program that recruits, trains and oversees volunteer gardeners to promote successful, safe and environmentally prudent home horticulture practices through education and community activities.

You may even know a master gardener. They work with other groups like the Boys and Girls Club, 4H and UVM Extension system. Some projects include setting up and staffing informational booths at the local agricultural fairs and the Vermont State Fair, and doing workshops on topics like invasive plants or backyard composting. They provide information days at farmers’ markets, work with children to teach them how to grow and prepare their own vegetables, and design, maintain and give educational tours of community gardens to name a very few. The list is endless.

Sometimes they even research and write an article or two for the local newspaper. That’s how I did my volunteer hours for the two years after I took the Master Gardener course. The course is 14 weeks of intensive study and then a number of volunteer hours interning to become certified. To maintain certification, the master gardener must continue volunteering each year.

Mother's Day Help in Garden
By Peggy Stattel, Master Gardener (Rutland Herald, May 1, 2004) (posted 7/13/04)

This Week: Crabapple trees help pollinate apple trees. Beware the full moon, said to bring on cold nights and frost. Corn stalks support pole beans. Beans supply nitrogen for corn. Place peony hoops on floppy plants while shoots are young.

Mother's Day is celebrated next week. Did you know that it's the number one day for phone calls? Call your mom early or you may get a busy signal. It's become a very commercial day but I like to think of it as an opportunity for us to thank the women who have brought so much into our lives. They may not be your biological mother but rather a kind, nurturing, caring individual who was there for you when you needed a shoulder to cry on or just a dose of reality.

Gift giving is part of this holiday. For mothers who are also gardeners I've got a great solution to the commercialism and expense of purchasing a present. (Besides most of us have more nightgowns, silly t-shirts, bath salts and knickknacks then we can ever use)

How about helping your mom in the garden? Wow, what an idea! It's cheap, practical and she'll love it.

Make her a card and include a coupon for a certain number of hours of help. You can be creative and get together with your siblings or other relatives and do a special project that your mom has only dreamed about. For example, if she wanted a rose garden you could help her lay out the design and supply the manual labor for the implementation. A few rose plants would complete the gift. You'll be tired but in the end you'll have a very happy mom.

Now if you're not the gardening kind but she is you can still help. With your mom's permission, of course, you could hire a landscaping service to do the mundane chores so that she can concentrate of the fun garden things. Someone to clean up the yard in the spring and fall, rake, mow and edge once or twice a month would ease her burden. Make sure the company or person you hire has a reputation for doing a good job. Ask for references and a fee schedule. Settle on a price for each job up front. Don't expect something for nothing, extra work means extra pay. If you know a neighborhood teenager they may be eager to make a few dollars too. Remember to pay a fair wage or you'll get what you pay for.

A few years ago I hired a young man who started his own landscaping business. We agreed on a price and scope of work. I was delighted with his help but he left to go to college. His stepfather took over the business and I am just as delighted with his work. His help allows me to spend my garden time working on projects that interest me, like creating another perennial bed or planting a berry patch.

Over the years my children have helped in the garden. Sometimes by choice, sometimes by request. Sometimes they just talked while I listened and worked. It didn't matter to me as long as they were around. Happy Mother's Day.

Japanese Beetles
By Peggy Stattel, Master Gardener (Rutland Herald, April 17, 2004) (posted 4/21/04)

This Week: Soak rusty tools in white vinegar to remove rust. Divide perennials as they emerge if needed. Perennials growing in rings (open centers) need dividing. Primroses make excellent gifts for that special administrative person. Primroses are fairly hardy perennials and can be transplanted outside later in the season.

April showers bring May flowers. They also bring mud season to Vermont. Having a white floor in my kitchen and bathrooms (what was I thinking?) it's a time I always remember. We need the rain for our upcoming garden season but make sure you don't jump the gun and begin working outside if the soil is too wet. Working in wet soil will compact it and cause problems for your plants. If you pick up a clump of soil and it sticks together when you squeeze it in your hand then it's too wet to till. It's so hard to have warm sunny days and not be able to play outside. Get all your other chores done - check the compost pile, organize your tools, wash the mud off your car, floor, pets and before you know it you'll be in the garden again.

Over the years the one question I get asked most is how to get rid of Japanese beetles. I get asked this in July when the beetles emerge and begin devouring raspberries, roses and just about everything else in sight. By that time it's too late to do anything but hand pick them off the plants. I carry a coffee can half filled with hot soapy water as I make my garden rounds so I can plop those little pests right in. Of course I wear gloves.

At this time of year the beetles are still small white grubs in the soil feeding on roots and underground stems. They're partial to grasses and can cause considerable damage to turf. The mature beetles lay their eggs in the soil about late August so the larvae spend the fall feeding. They burrow down for winter and then resume their destruction in the spring.

It's difficult if not impossible to get rid of all Japanese beetles. Getting rid of the grubs can reduce their numbers considerably. Moles, skunks, birds, especially starlings feed on Japanese beetle grubs. I don't know anyone who would want moles and skunks in their yard so that's not a viable solution. Moles can do more noticeable damage than grubs.

Japanese beetles and grubs are susceptible to several diseases. Milky spore disease is the most commonly known. It kills the grubs by causing their clear blood to turn milky. It lasts in the soil for a long time killing many generations of beetles. It's harmless to humans, warm blooded animals, plants and other insects.

Now is the time to spread this commercially available disease over your lawns and flower beds. It comes in the form of a dust that can be applied with a spreader. It's not entirely effective here in Vermont due to the cool, wet soils. It does better in hot dry areas. You may have to apply the disease several times for it to be effective but it does work.

If you don't want to use milky spore disease you may want to try these tasty recipes. Mince 10 to 15 cloves of garlic, soak in a pint of mineral oil for 24 hours. Strain and spray as is or add a few drops of soap and dilute with water. Blend 1/2 cup of hot peppers with 2 cups of water, strain and spray. You can also combine garlic with peppers, let stand for a day or so, strain and spray.

This is an interesting brew. Get a blender and utensils that won't be used for food again. Mix 1/2 cup of an offending insect, like Japanese beetles or their grubs, with 2 cups of water. Blend, strain, add a few drops of soap and put in a sprayer. This sounds a little yucky to me but I'm told that offending insects hate the smell of this mixture. In July for those pests that survive my heartiest efforts to eliminate them I sprinkle wheat flower on my raspberries and pumpkins. Japanese beetles really hate that. There's no guarantee on the results of any of these concoctions but they're relatively safe to use on your plants.

Do you have any other unique treatments for getting rid of garden pests? Let me know.

Safety in the Garden
By Peggy Stattel, Master Gardener (Rutland Herald, April 3, 2004) (posted 4/7/04)

This Week: Set clocks ahead tonight (Spring forward, Fall back). Buying an Easter lily? Pick one with lots of buds, not quite opened. Prune spring flowering shrubs after bloom. Prune deadwood from roses after new growth appears.

A few weeks ago I received a call from Nanci McGuire of the Rutland Natural Resources Conservation District seeking volunteers for their 2004 tree, shrub and more sale. On May 3 through 7 from 9AM until 3PM she's looking for folks to package up bare root plants and make sure they're in good shape when their new owners pick them up. It's very important that the roots not be exposed to the air. Those interested in volunteering for all the time or just a day or so can call her at 775-8035 ext. 17 and leave her a message. Master gardeners can use these hours towards their yearly volunteer time.

Nanci urged volunteers to dress appropriately, work clothes, gloves and sturdy rubber boots are a must. Safety goggles may be a good idea too. The work will be done in a sheltered but unheated area so dress in layers in case the weather changes. I told her I'd give her request a plug in this column because I planned to write about safety in the garden. Every year there are dozens and dozens of gardeners who end up at the emergency room of their local hospital because they didn't play it safe.

Gardening should be fun but sometimes it's dangerous. There are chores that should be left to professionals. We had a few trees taken down last season by a reputable company. Some had split and I was afraid they'd fall into the house. There was no way I was going to let my wonderful husband try and remove them. He's a very talented guy but doesn't know the first thing about taking down trees. I love garden tools but there again safety is my utmost concern. My favorite orthopedic surgeon told me that he sees many mangled limbs and digits from folks sticking their hands and feet into mowers, trimmers and shredders.

Before you use any piece of equipment - manual or motorized - make sure you read the instructions. If you're not familiar with the tool ask someone who knows how to use it. It's a very good idea to keep all your tools in excellent running condition. Mower blades should be sharp and unobstructed. Here's a neat tip: buy an extra blade for your lawnmower. This way if one needs sharpening you can replace it with the sharp one. There goes your "the blade's not sharp" excuse for not mowing the lawn. All engines should receive a yearly maintenance check. We spend so much money on our outdoor equipment it's a shame to let them get into disrepair because we don't want to spend a few dollars having them serviced.

Keeping ourselves in good shape is important too. Wearing proper clothing is just one part of happy gardening. You need to remember to pace yourself. I am so guilty of not following my own advice. It's amazing how much I can get done on the first sunny, warm day in the spring. Unfortunately my poor old body doesn't appreciate my zeal. Sometimes it even refuses to work for a day or two afterwards. Make a list and check off your tasks one by one. If you're tired, sit down. If you're thirsty, have a cool drink -water is preferable to sugary drinks. Wear sunscreen and a hat!!! I'm famous for going to the garden with the idea of only being out for a minute or two. An hour later my ears and back of my neck is sunburned and my nose blistered. No more. I put sunscreen on each sunny day right after I take my shower. I use the waterproof kind that's made for children. It has a SPF45 rating and I reapply it in the afternoon.

If you have four-legged companions that follows you around the garden make sure they're safe too. I recently read that cocoa mulch is toxic to dogs, sometimes fatally. I love the smell of the mulch but I love my silly little dog, Belle, much more. There is a website - www.aspca.org, which has lists of plants and garden materials that are harmful to animals and those that are safe. It's a great site for interesting articles about things we don't think of that have the potential to cause great harm to those furry creatures who adore us. For example, did you know that grapes and raisins could cause kidney failure in dogs? Check it out for your pet's sake.

If you're interested in some hard but satisfying work, give Nanci a call. If you have any garden questions or ideas you'd like me research and write about you can contact me at stattel@vermontel.net. 

It's spring again!!!
By Peggy Stattel, Master Gardener (Rutland Herald, March 20, 2004) (posted 4/7/04)

This Week: Check tools to see if they're in good shape. Take mowers in for a tune up and sharpen clippers and hoes. Prune summer flowering shrubs and trees if needed. Watch for local garden seminars. Repot houseplants and check for insects.

It's spring again!!! (Pause here and do dance of joy!) As I write this the sun is shining, the wind blowing and it's a few degrees above freezing. I'm sure we'll have more snow and cold weather but we're on our way to warmer days. The Christmas season is officially over at my house. I wait until spring to take down the wreath on my front door. The in-between season is not on my top ten list of mood-lightening days so I extend the holidays until spring, which is my favorite time of year.

Over the last few weeks folks have asked my how my garden is growing. To tell the truth, it's perfect. Of course, it's all in my head. I started imagining what I was going to plant this year right after New Year's Day. I understand that reality (also known as Vermont weather) and my dreams of the perfect garden don't necessarily coincide. Half the fun of gardening is the challenge of making something work despite the odds.

The most important thing about gardening in Vermont is the joy it brings to us. If it's not enjoyable then I wouldn't do it. Over the years I've learned a few things that have helped me get the most out of a season. If you're a first time gardener then keep it simple. Even if you have a large yard, lots of land or tons of space don't try to do everything in one season. Start with a plan and stick to it. Too many things going on at the same time could cause you to become overwhelmed and lose the joy. Not to mention most of your crop.

For example, a few tomato or pepper plants are okay, a few dozen will all ripen at the same time and while you love tomatoes and peppers there's just so many you can eat at one time. If you don't plan to can or freeze your harvest then only plant enough vegetables for you to have fresh produce during the growing season. You can also plant vegetable varieties that will ripen at different times of the season, some early and some late. That will extend your harvest. I always have a few squash on the vine by the time frost hits. My Swiss chard lasts from early spring until late, late fall. You can also plant a second crop after the first one is harvested. This works for peas, beans, lettuce and spinach.

Flowers are my weakness. Last year I planted some zinnias. They were terrific, exploding in color. Bright colors are very in this year so I want lots and lots of zinnias. I bought seed packets of every variety I could find but realized that I have no place to start them. My good friend, who owns a greenhouse, offered to start them for me as a birthday present. (It's so cool have a spring birthday.) I'll pay her the going rate for the plants, just as I would if she chose the seeds.

If you don't have a friend with a greenhouse make sure you don't start more than you can handle. We have some excellent greenhouses/garden centers in this area. I've been to them all. They've already picked the varieties but I'm sure you'll find what you want. You should check them out before the season begins to see what they are going to stock. Being prepared is another way to get off to the right start.

So let the gardening begin. Visions of vegetables and flowers dance in my head. I'm ready to go.

GROWING CITRUS AS HOUSEPLANTS
By Josie Rahe, Master Gardener (Bennington Banner 3/6/04) (posted 4/7/04)

I don't know if all the evidence is in on the advantages of Vitamin C in protecting us from colds and respiratory diseases. I do know that you get a lot of Vitamin C in citrus fruit and that it is still part of the food pyramid. I also know that if you want to rid yourself of the winter blahs, there is absolutely nothing better than watching your orange, lemon or lime flower, set fruit and produce in a sunny place in your living room or in the greenhouse. Key elements for success are good light, adequate humidity indoors, well-drained potting soil, additional nutrients and consistent watering.

Originally from China, citrus was brought to India and then the Middle East and Europe before the time of Christ. It was brought by Columbus to the Americas. Many types of citrus trees can be grown indoors in Bennington. The best way to grow the trees is to keep them in a pot outside in the summer and to bring them in when the temperature goes below 50 degrees. They can winter in either a heated greenhouse or in a sunny window or door in your house. In pots, the trees will only grow two to five feet tall and make wonderful evergreen ornamentals. Indoors, temperatures of 70 degrees during the day and 55 degrees at night are necessary for them to do well.

Watering is so very important. Keep the soil moist, not soggy. Do not leave the container in standing water. Citrus foliage benefits from being sprayed with water in the winter months because heated rooms may need additional humidity. Put the pot in the sink or in the winter in the garage and give it a real misting. The leaves will stay lush and healthy. When testing for water, forget all the advertisements for moisture meters and the like. Your good finger will tell you all the gardener needs to know. Stick in your thumb or forefinger and judge for yourself. Place the pot on pebbles and be sure it has proper drainage holes. Water less often in winter without letting the pot dry out completely and increase the amount of water once growth starts in spring. They may need water as often as once a day in sunny weather.

Citrus trees are evergreen and will naturally drop an old leaf from time to time. If there is a lot of leaf drop check to be sure the tree is not too dry or that it is getting poor light. Moving the tree so that it gets more light may solve the problem.

Inadequate feeding may also cause leaf drop. You can control this by feeding with special citrus food. Feed your trees weekly when in growth with a citrus fertilizer that is high in trace elements of iron and zinc. Feed them less often when they aren't in a growth period.

Flowering will occur several times in the year with fruit setting each time. The flowers are fragrant and beautiful but not all will set fruit. If you see too much fruit setting it is better to thin. Some trees will need thinning to keep branches from breaking under the weight. The fruit gradually develops and turns colour. It will then stay on the tree for several months after ripening. Some orange trees will hold ripe fruit on the branches for 6 to 10 months.

Most citrus trees are self pollinating but if you want to try on your own, take a cotton swab to rub pollen within the flower. Most, however, will produce fruit on their own.

The most likely pests are aphids, red spider mite and mealybug and can be controlled with an appropriate off-the-shelf spray.

This winter, there were days I couldn't make it to the greenhouse since I have to go out the door, down a ramp and into another door to enter it. But there is a window from my living room that looks directly inside the greenhouse so I can keep an eye on what is in there. Framed in that window is the orange tree we have nurtured for a number of years. Next to it is a Ponderosa lemon a proven contender for beauty in your house and the producer of huge fruit. Next to that is our Persian lime. The lime recently presented us with some fruit and we had generous squeezes on our breakfast honeydew.

When this winter's ice and snow kept us indoors and the temperatures dropped below zero, these beautiful trees, with their flowers, fruit and shiny green leaves reminded us that spring will come in a matter of weeks and we will then be able to enjoy them more closely on the deck.

Vermont Exotic Invasives
By Peggy Stattel, Master Gardener (Rutland Herald, July 5, 2003) (posted 7/21/03)

This Week: Container planters need to be watered more frequently. In very hot weather some need water every day. Garlic planted last fall should be ready to harvest. Plant a second crop of peas, lettuce, and string beans. Fertilize gardens regularly.

Every year the Vermont Master Gardener Program focuses on a specific topic(s) as part of their education outreach. This year in cooperation with the Nature Conservatory of Vermont the focus is on Vermont exotic invasives. These are plants, which are not native to Vermont. Over three million acres are lost each year to invasive plants worldwide. That's an area about 3 times the size of Delaware. Biodiversity is an ideal environment for plants and animals. Invasive plants create a monoculture choking out native plants.

Invasive plants lack predators, have aggressive root systems, are adaptable so they thrive in any conditions, grow rapidly and produce lots of seeds. They can take over a home garden in one season and spread to surrounding land. If left unchecked they can upset the balance of native habitats. In Vermont purple loosestrife is taking over marshlands pushing out native cattails.

At a recent Master Gardener meeting the guest speaker was Ruth Marx from Dummerston, Vermont. Dr. Marx holds a Ph.D. in genetics and is extremely knowledgeable in the field of invasive exotic plants. She showed us several varieties, some were beautiful and in my garden. I noticed one of her samples was yellow flag iris. I transplanted them into my garden a few years ago. They have a small flatish flower and lovely yellow color. I whined that I really liked the way they looked in my yard. She replied that I should get over it and clear them out. The clump will enlarge and crowd out other plants. She's right because when I went home I noticed how the small clump I transplanted is about 4 times as big. Yellow flag iris is especially dangerous at the edge of ponds when they, like loosestrife, crowd out cattails and water carries the seeds to new places.

Getting rid of these deadly lovelies is even more difficult. You can't put an invasive on the compost pile. They need to be disposed of in a contained area like the dump. Wrap them in plastic bags and make sure not one piece of root is left or the whole thing will start growing again. Digging them out is such a chore but the only alternative is to call a professional herbicide specialist to remove them chemically.  I don't want to do that so I have a monumental project ahead of me.

I asked Ruth what the worst offender was. She said that foresters hate buckthorn. It produces berries, which ripen all season long. Birds eat the berries, which cause them to get diarrhea and they disperse the seeds throughout the forest. When part of a forest is being clear-cut buckthorn is the first to come up and shades out everything else.

Loosestrife and buckthorn along with many others are on the state's list of quarantined noxious weeds. Folks who move, sell or distribute these and other on the list can be heavily fined. Ruth had to get a special permit for educational purposes just to show them to our class.  She was required to dispose of them properly once the lesson was over.

To help preserve Vermont's natural native environment you need to be aware of what's growing in your garden, not bring plants, seeds or fruits into the country without having them inspected by quarantine officials, landscape with native non-invasive plants and remove those invasive plants already in your area. If someone offers you a plant that you're not familiar with and says it will spread all over, they can't get rid of it - DON'T TAKE IT - unless you check it out beforehand.

The following website http://pss.uvm.edu/mg/mg/ will provide you with a comprehensive list of plants and what to do about them. Click on the icon for Invasive Plant Info. You'll be able to download a particular fact sheet and lots of information about all invasives in Vermont. If you don't have a computer contact the Nature Conservancy of Vermont at 802-229-4425, Vermont Dept of Environmental Conservation at 802-241-3777, the Vermont Dept of Fish and Wildlife, Nongame and Natural Heritage Program at 802-241-3715 or the Master Gardener Helpline at 1-800-639-2230.

Easy orchid growing
By Josie Rahe, Master Gardener (Bennington Banner 3/29-30/03) (posted 4/9/03)

Discovered in the early 19th century, orchids were an immediate hit. Collectors and nursery professionals hired plant explorers to search for orchids worldwide. Because of their exotic nature many believe that orchids are difficult to grow and maintain. A friend advised me to simply try one or two and I found it very easy.

When choosing a place to put your pot, select a bright location with an eastern, or shaded southern, exposure. Orchids need steady temperatures, preferably between 55 degrees and 85 degrees Fahrenheit. Higher temperature can retard growth and fluctuations in temperature can cause buds not to open.

We have three cymbidiums. They need a very well drained soil. We planted them on one part bark chips to one part sand to two parts potting soil. We keep them moist except during the rest period. They have long narrow leaves. They flower on tall spikes between December and June (my spikes just appeared in March). We will keep them drier between October and January. To induce flowering, it is helpful, according to my Greenhouse Book, to have a 10-degree drop in temperature at night. We can achieve this in our greenhouse.

Orchids require less care than ordinary house plants, so don't shy away from them. Here are some easy ones to tempt you:

* Brassavola nodosa - Lady of the night - gives off a wonderful evening fragrance and produces three-inch flowers that are white with colored spots. It can bloom anytime of the year and doesn't need a rest period. It needs full sunlight and temperatures above 50 degrees.

* Cattleya labiata are among the easier orchids to grow. They need to thoroughly dry out between watering. After they flower, they need two months of rest and you let them run dry during this period, watering only every two or three weeks.

*Phaleanopsis, sometimes called moth orchids, are easy to get to flower and have a lot of varieties. They like warmer temperatures and don't like full sun. I'm told they can have up to 40 blooms and can stay in bloom for three months or more.

If you would like to cut a spike and put it in water, be sure the blossoms are in full bloom first. A single spike can have a lot of blooms and last as long as a month in a vase. Try putting some clear glass marbles in the bottom for effect and change the water frequently.

In any case, don't let your friends or guests know how easy it is to grow orchids. Let them just think that you are a superior gardener who can take on fragile things like orchids (which are not in the least fragile. Believe it!).

After ours stop blooming, we will be dividing them again, and that will be another adventure. Cutting into the bulbs and splitting them is a bit scary, but there is a lot of literature on this. I'll let you know how we make out. Instead of three plants, we may have nine, although, one must always give away at least one or two to friends.

Welcome friends
By Josie Rahe, Master Gardener (Bennington Banner 3/15-16/03) (posted 4/9/03)

This cold winter has allowed me to enjoy the birds in my backyard. Watching them feed at the feeder and on the ground is a lesson in coping. Cold winter winds make them puff up their feathers so they look twice their size. Layering is everything when combating the cold.

Ground feeding brings the shy, but brilliant cardinal to the deck and we like our well-dressed juncos parading around in their tuxedos.

Leonard Perry of UVM Extension says all birds prefer to feed in the early morning and again late in the day. But we find that our birds love a "three meals a day" schedule. We are pleased to feed them beginning in the late fall and continuing into leaf-out-time. But we choose to use the deck ourselves during the warmer months.

You can encourage birds by planning your plantings. Wayfaring tree viburnum grows up to 10 feet and has red to black fruit. Privet, whose fruit remains into the winter, and flowering cherry, which is not so ornamental but is very attractive to birds, are all great cultivars for your winged friends. And you might even try a vine like trumpet honeysuckle that has red fruit in early fall to get birds feeding close to your walls.

Trees close to the feeder help a lot. I have a weeping crab not far away and the little birds spend a lot of time in it, breaking open the sunflower seeds. One would think they would have a headache pecking them open on branches, but they seem contented to take their time breaking and chewing them.

Diane Ackerman writes, "A little known secret about hummingbirds is that some die in their sleep." Since they swivel at high speed among many blossoms, they devour vast stores of energy to fuel flights. They must eat every 15 minutes.

And we must satisfy them by supplying deep red fuchsias and red geraniums because they burn life with their hearts beating at 500 beats per minute. No wonder they are exhausted at the end of the day when they enter a kind of limbo, breathing shallowly and slowing their hearts. "Waking up," Ackerman says, "becomes a death-defying act, and so some die in their sleep."

But we find every year, when we have given up and think they will never return, the red-bibbed gent glides into our fuchsia or the geraniums or the petunias or onto the water drops on the leaves of the gingko and fig we have just sprayed with the hose. They are so agile and they jump from plant to plant, preferring flight to walking anywhere. They can hover, fly backward or upside down.

After a while, they seem to know we won't hurt them and they whirr and do aerial acrobatics to thank us for planting those lovely red things with nectar.

Birds and gardens, planting and harvesting, they all go together to make our year. If you're a gardener, it makes sense. If you're a bird, it allows you to live, eat, nest, make little birds and fly a little longer.

A grape arbor with grapes? In Bennington?
By Josie Rahe, Master Gardener (Bennington Banner 3/1-2/03) (posted 4/9/03)

Yes, you can grow grapes in Vermont! At least it's rumored that you can and I'm going to try. The grapevine is one of the oldest cultivated plants in the world. The basic requirements include a good planting site, hardy varieties and proper culture. Well drained soils produce the best growth and grapes need full sun here. The soil need not be highly fertile but vines prefer a slightly acid soil with a pH of 6 to 6.5.

Only one part of my year is in full sun for most of the day so that makes my site choice an easy one. Grapevines require one inch of water per week, either from rain or lugging. so during hot, dry weather we will have to irrigate weekly.

I love grapes, but only the seedless varieties. Most are not hardy except in the very southern part of the state (banana belt Bennington) where winter temperatures rarely fall below minus 10 to 15 degrees. (Ignore this winter.) Here are three candidates: "Canadice," a red with excellent fruit quality which is hardy to minus 15 to 20 degrees; "Reliance," a red with good fruit flavor; "Concord Seedless," a blue with good fruit quality.

My reason for trying a few grape vines is to introduce an arbor into my landscape. An early memory is of hot summers and the coolness of a grape arbor that led to the vegetable garden, and of purple grapes with seeds in the middle. That was a well established grape arbor and I will be starting from scratch so it will be a while before mine shades me.

I've planned my arbor specifications for 12 feet long, two and a half feet deep and seven to eight feet tall. I like the look of impeded cedar poles, and I'll have lattices on the sides for the grape vines to climb. We need plenty of air around since high humidity encourages powdery mildew. Ripened grapes may attract yellow jackets and that would destroy my vision of peace and tranquility, but we have a while to worry about that.

Shoots develop from dormant buds on the previous year's growth. The shoots gradually harden and become woody by winter when they are called canes. only one-year-old growth bears fruit clusters.

While I'm in the process of imagining this arbor in my landscape, I'll run up to Proctor and look into flagstones to put under it. a bench would be pretty cool on the flagstones, but if I move the bench from the porch to the arbor, that will leave the porch bare and I'll just have to buy new wicker rockers for it. The beauty of the arbor has its price tag. Guess this will be my only "new" project this year.

Conserve energy -landscape
By Josie Rahe, Master Gardener (Bennington Banner 2/15-16/03) (posted 4/9/03)

In these days of minus temperatures and whipping winds, I'm remembering some lessons from the Master Gardener Course about the role that planting may serve in decreasing the energy required to keep a home more comfortable in winter and in summer. Shrubs, espaliered plants and vines grown on a bare wall of your house may act as heat control devices insulating walls by absorbing and reflecting the sun's rays before they strike the wall. Leonard Perry of UVM suggests that roses and certain vines such as clematis, grown on a sturdy trellis, shad windows in summer and permit sunlight to enter in winter.

A row of evergreens planed next to a wall creates "dead air" between the plants and the wall, and since dead air has much less cooling power than moving air, the temperature difference between the inside of your house and the outside "still air" space is reduced and held constant. This decreases the loss of heat through the walls. In the summer this still air insulates a house from hot air and helps you keep your cool.

Which way do the winds blow? Winter winds, typically northwesterly, raise the rate of air exchange between your house's exterior and interior environments, resulting in greater fuel consumption. Creating windbreaks will intercept and redirect winter winds before they reach your house.

Our furnace man reported that his main problem this year has been frozen pipes. He reminded me that once people would rake leaves into bags and place them at the base of their houses to keep the cold from the pipes, but with the recent warm winters, they haven't bothered, so this winter we had frozen pipes all over Bennington. I remember seeing those bags, Sometimes, they were the orange ones left over from Halloween.

Hedges will serve as wind breaks. They also provide background for flowers, filter dust and encourage birds. They can take the place of the bags of leaves. The best time to plant them is in early spring. space them not less than one foot apart. According to Dr. Pellet of UVM, a six-foot-high hedge would be spaced about 18 inches apart. Evergreens have winter foliage and density but they don't grow as fast as deciduous hedges like maple leaf viburnum whose black fruit persists into winter.

This Spring, let's plant for the possibility of cold winters and/or hot summers. Hug your house with hedges and help conserve energy.

Garden catalogues to make you dream of spring
By Josie Rahe, Master Gardener (Bennington Banner 2/1-2/03) (posted 4/9/03)

Each day's mail bring new garden catalogues for Spring and Summer. Being a bit adventurous and always trying something new is a sign of good gardening. don't get bored with "same old, same old" in the vegetable garden, and try to vary the flower beds so there is always something new for you, your neighbor and the passersby. Here are a few treats I found this Sunday snowy afternoon in Bennington while I browsed deeply and contentedly into my pile of catalogues.

Chioggia Beets -I've been able to buy them in summer, but I've never tried them myself, so this year is the year! Hopefully this will be an early Spring. "Cook's Garden" sells an heirloom variety, and describes it as a flattish early beet called candystripe for the concentric pink and white rings in its sugary sweet root. The unique color of leaves and root make it a very ornamental plant as well. If you've never had them, cook them with a dab of butter and some balsamic vinegar for a lovely summer side dish. No reason not to plant them in with my Shastas. The foliage would fit right in with the white. This beet needs 55 days.

Black Seeded Simpson, a loose-leaf lettuce from "Cook's," is also an heirloom and is one of the earliest lettuces, maturing in about 45 days. "Cook's" describes it as especially tasty. I want to seed it into flower boxes on our bridge and should be able to get a couple of crops at least before the end of the season.

In the "Make Life Easier" catalogue, I found hanging bucket planters, which will fit in between the lettuce-seeded flower boxes. Made in the shape of an old-fashioned bucket, they have a long curved handle that hooks over a deck or bridge railing, a fence or patio wall. I can fill them with potting mix and add petunias or pansies for a spot of color between the green of the lettuces. They have a hole in the bottom for drainage, are crafted from sturdy powder-coated metal, in yellow, blue, white or light green colors. According to MLE's catalogue, they measure six inches across by five and a half inches deep and the handles are 10 inches upward. Snapdragons might work here, also -what a great splash of color!

Birdhouse Gourds -"Cook's" has this trailing member of the squash family. The seed produce hard-skinned fruits that can be make into birdhouses, but you must give them room to run -and that may be a problem. But I'm going to give it a try. Will Josie win or will the critters get to them before they produce? Only the Garden Spirit knows.

That brings me through only a few catalogues piling up. Better save up a little money, since I really would like two of everything. However, I had a pleasant afternoon and a vision of what may happen when the snow melts.

Keep that Aspidistra going
By Josie Rahe, Master Gardener (Bennington Banner 1/18-19/03) (posted 4/9/03)

The short days of winter slows the growth of your houseplants. Everyone has at least one houseplant and now is the time to give it/them special care, from philodendron to camellias. The slowdown is due to lower light levels and so we must adjust our care. According to Dr. Patti Nagai of the University of Wisconsin, there are three basics to keeping houseplants healthy: light, water and cleanliness.

Tropicals will survive in low light, but will thrive in high light and most flowering plants must have high levels to keep flowering. Those plants you received for the holiday will need a lot of light to keep them going. Direct, hot light may scorch the leaves but indirect light will keep them flowering. Look at the direction your windows face and place your plants by their need for light. East is half shade; its morning light is cool. west is half sun its afternoon light is warm (well, sort of). South is full sun -the most for the longest period - and usually is warmer. North offers the least sun and is usually coolest. Are your plants dropping leaves, turning yellow? They're probably not getting enough light. Try different locations or artificial light above them. Fluorescents are good because they are cool.

Use water carefully. A number-one killer of house plants is over watering. I killed an African Violet by over-watering. Talk about a shrinking violet -this one just folded its leaves and collapsed in a pulpy mess. The plant will tell you if it's getting too much water when the lower leaves turn yellow and drop off. Brown or black spots may appear or the plant might wilt. To determine the plant's need for water, poke your finger in to root depth -don't just feel the surface. If it feels dry, it's time to water. If it's still moist, check it again in a day or two. When you water, our it on so that the soul becomes saturated and excess water drains out of the drainage holes. let the pot drain for about 15 minutes then discard any water remaining in the saucer or pot reservoir. Dr. Nagai suggest grouping plants together to increase humidity around the plants.

Don Janssen, and extension educator for the University of Nebraska (we're talking "cold" here) stresses cleaning. Dust and grease often accumulate on leaves of houseplants making them unattractive and even slowing growth. Put your babies in the bathtub and bathe them, shower them, then wipe them with a soft cloth. The dust, if left to itself, will clog the pores of the leaves and provide a haven for nasty little bugs. It will also reduce light reception. Large firm-leaved plants have a natural wax and cleaning them makes them shine. So keep your plants clean -they'll feel good an look good and make your house a lot brighter when the temperatures go below freezing.

Note: Apidistra comes from Eastern Asia and belongs to the lily family. It has large, evergreen basal leaves with small, brownish bell-shaped flowers. It's also called "cast iron plant" for its ability to withstand abuse, but when well cared for it does everything a treasured houseplant can do -that is, shine for you through the winter.

WEED WISDOM
by Bill Guinness, Master Gardener, University of Vermont Extension (posted 4/7/03)

DANDELIONS

Every part of this weed can be used! I pick young leaves in the early spring for a green salad. Use plain or in a potato salad. (Chop up dandelion, eggs, potatoes; add vinegar and olive oil. Yum, yum!). Dandelions can also be used as a cooked green with butter, oil or vinegar. For best flavor, don't overcook. The flower buds can be cooked and served with butter, oil or vinegar. The can also be pickled. Roots can be cleaned and roasted. Roots can also be ground up for a coffee substitute. Young roots can be cooked in the same manner as parsnips: boil for twenty minutes, then serve with butter and paprika. And, of course, you can make a very smooth wine. Made right, it can pack a very good wallop! Dandelions are high in protein, calcium, phosphorus, iron, riboflavin, niacin and vitamins A, C and B1. Dandelions were used as a cure for scurvy. Dandelions are a very good spring 'pick-you-up'. The best part is it's free! Where can you get a better deal than that? (Source: "Weed Cookbook" by Adrienne Crowhurst c.1972)

Vitamin content comparison:

COMMON MILKWEED

Many parts of the common milkweed can be used for some nice eating. These parts are the young shoots, unopened flower clusters, open flower clusters and unripe seed pods.

Collect the young shoots in early June. Boil them in salted rapidly boiling water for two minutes. Pour off this water and replace with fresh boiling water. Serve with butter or oil and vinegar - I like a cheese sauce. They melt in your mouth! Use like asparagus in salads, as a side dish, etc.

The unopened flower heads serve like broccoli. Prepare and cook the same way as for young shoots.

Open flower clusters should be boiled for one minute. They can be deep fried like day lily flowers.

Young unripe seed pods should be gathered very small around August 1st. Cook them in boiling water for about twenty minutes. Change the water several times replacing with boiling water. Serve with butter, cream sauce, cheese sauce or sour cream.

The roots can be used as a purgative. They are sometimes used as an emetic -- but that's another subject!

Many recipes call for the use of soda. However, soda removes vitamins and minerals so I don't use soda.

Herbes, Herbs, Erbs
By Josie Rahe, Master Gardener Intern (Bennington Banner 9/20/02) (posted 10/31/02)

The American Herb Society's official definition of "herb" is: "Any plant that can be used for pleasure, fragrance or physic." Herb can be pronounce in two ways with the "h" pronounced or with the "h" silent. Through England and Ancient Rome and Greece, through the bible to the Garden of Eden, the use of herbs spread throughout the world as did belief in their medicinal and magical powers. For me, herbs mean my kitchen window sill, in full sunlight in the middle of winter, in 6" pots.

Culinary herbs used for food preparation like parsley, basil and rosemary will reside this winter on my sunny sill to enhance my stews and sauces. The time to start is now! You can obtain herb seeds locally from herb farms and from farmers markets and garden centers. Buy healthy plants free of insect pests and diseases.

For your winter window sill take a 6" pot for each herb (my sill will accommodate 3) and fill with good potting soil. As a rule of thumb, seeds are sown at a depth of twice the diameter of the seed, but tiny seeds, we learned in Master Gardeners class should be sown on the surface and covered lightly with finely-sifted soil. Firm the soil down and moisten with a fine spray of water.

A tray filled with stones is a good idea for the window sill. Plant your seed and cover the pot with plastic wrap. This literally imitates a miniature greenhouse. add to this the steam from your kitchen and the sun from above and you have a beautiful growing module.

For your kitchen herbs, choose culinary ones -basil, cilantro, parsley, and rosemary. They are so pleasantly scented and add so much to winter food.

It takes a while to start herbs inside, but as soon as you see growth, remove the plastic and watch them take hold. Once they are established, clip a little bit for salads and winter dishes and sauces. Let everyone smell them and guess what they are.

Pots can encourage the artist in you if you paint them brightly and label them with the name of the herb and the date is was planted.

So, if you have a kitchen window that gets winter sun, you are blessed. If you have potted herbs in that window, growing, with snow on the ground outside, you are doubly blessed. And, if you smell basil or rosemary while it is cooking in your kitchen -well, that's as good as it gets.

Remember the old nursery rhyme -Roses are red, violets are blue, Thyme and Sweet Rosemary, Hyssop and Rue. And by the way, in Spring transplant your herbs into the border of your flower beds.

Building Tepees in the Garden
By Josie Rahe, Master Gardener Intern (Bennington Banner 7/20/02) (posted 10/31/02)

When you drive around, look for the many unusual and beautiful ways our gardeners are making use of tepees. No longer just supports for pole beans, they provide a training ground for all sorts of climbing vines and small fruits, and because of their height, provide some beauty for the driver or passerby.

To make a tepee, choose three eight-foot poles. These are available at nurseries and hardware stores. Drive the poles into the ground 12 to 18 inches deep at an angle to be sure that they won't be knocked over by the winds we have been experiencing recently. You can use rocks around the bottom to make them more secure. Bring them together at the top in tepee fashion and lash with metal wire or twine or rope. Now the fun begins.

A fine textured, slow growing vine adds pattern and interest to a garden and a decorative vine possesses flowers, fruit and foliage for interest in various seasons. They are classified by their climbing method -by tendril like the grape, twining like bittersweet or clematis, or clinging like Boston ivy.

We decided we wanted color, so we chose scarlet runner bean and moon vine and started both from seed in late April. The seed germinated rapidly and were ready to be planted in early May. We set the scarlet runner at each pole and the moon vine in the middle and stood back. The scarlet runner is nearly to the top now with deep red blossoms and the moon vine is following the climb with its beautiful white flowers. Moon vine is generally considered an annual. The scarlet runner vine produces pods. We cut the first few and dry them and save the seed to give away or plant anew the next year. A member of the Kennedia family, it is often known as the "running postman."

Another year, or another tepee, I'd like to try trumpet vine, or morning glories, perhaps a climbing hydrangea or dutchman's pipe with its large heart-shaped leaves. I seem many posts with clematis growing and twining upward, dazzling us with their lovely purple, pink blooms.

Building and planting tepees is a great activity to do with children because they will love to help build the tepee as well as choose the seeds. They can have instant gratification because one can almost watch the planting grow day by day. The children need to know, however, that they can't sleep in this particular tepee overnight.

Growing "Love Apples"
By Josie Rahe, Master Gardener Intern (Bennington Banner 6/29/02) (posted 10/31/02)

Whether you pronounce it "tomato" or "tomawto," the first bite of one from your own garden is a thing to remember. Originally cultivated in Mexico and Peru, the tomato is one of the newest plants to be used for human food. When Spanish explorers brought back seed from South America, the plant was grown for ornament and called "love apple." It was commonly regarded as poisonous and only recognized as a valuable food since the 1800s. It now ranks third among our vegetable plants. Numerous varieties from the cherry to the beefsteak are cultivated in nearly all parts of the United States. Technically the tomato is a fruit, although commonly referred to as a vegetable because of its uses.

In our Master Gardener class on vegetables, we learned from the TV personality and UVM Extension lecturer Charlie Nardozzi some of the following hints and tips about tomatoes:

• They must have sun and well-drained, loamy soil with a pH of 6.0-6.8. They like to be warm and moist. They are considered a tender annual, although they are really a perennial.
• They are heavy feeders, needing fertilizers from a starter solution, with side-dressing one to two weeks before the first tomato ripens and again two weeks after the first tomato with a balanced fertilizer.
• Tomatoes require relatively little space for large production. Each tomato plant, properly cared for, yields 10 to 15 pounds or more of fruit. Plenty for the table, plus much more for sauces, juice, and other uses.
• You can start then from seed, but remembering that longing for the first bite, you can get a leg up by buying plants from any of several good nurseries.

Select stocky transplants about six to eight inches tall. Set them in ground covering stems so that only two or three sets of true leaves are exposed. If plants are to be staked or trellised, space them 18 inches apart in rows four feet apart. Staking makes caring for the tomatoes easier than letting them sprawl. Growing tomatoes in wire cages allows the tomato plant to grow in its natural manner but keeps the fruit and leaves off the ground. Be sure to get fencing with at least 6-inch spacing between the wires so that you can get your hand inside to harvest the tomatoes.

Good soil is the very first thing one should consider. Begin by spading the soil to a depth of 8 to 10 inches, removing any rocks, roots or large stones. add organic matter such as rotted manure. If you have clay, the heavier it is, the more organic matter you will need. Rotted manure is the very best.

And then, there are all the things that love tomatoes other than humans. They are subject to diseases such as blight, leafspot, tobacco mosaic virus, bacterial spot, and insects such as flea beetle, hornworm, Colorado potato beetle, fruitworm, aphids, mites, whiteflies and cutworms. There are also cultural problems such as blossom-end rot, irregular soil moisture or calcium deficiency, leaf roll, fruit cracking, and sun scald from lack of foliage cover.

If you need to use a pesticide or herbicide, read the label very carefully and follow the directions just as given, but keeping a sharp eye and monitoring your plants daily helps a lot also. use a power lens to detect bugs, and destroy them before they get started.

One wonders with all these challenges, why we still work to grow tomatoes year after year. Because the first taste of a tomato from your own garden is beyond compare.

Almost Time for Bed
By Josie Rahe, Master Gardener Intern (Bennington Banner 9/7/02) (posted 10/29/02)

The season is approaching when we prepare our beds for the winter season and think about projects for next year. A properly prepared bed is a thing of beauty and even covered with snow, promises great things for spring. Now is the time to review what went right or wrong in the growing season and to correct your soil content, and enrich the soil for the coming year.

I've been working toward a nice sandy loam for my raised beds. In Master Gardener classes on soil and composting we learned that structure is important and is closely related to air and water movement within the soil. Good structure allows rapid movement of air and water and allows extensive root development. It is promoted by an adequate supple of organic matter and by working the soil only when moisture conditions are fitting.

If you are just beginning a garden or if you have had problems, you can start with a soil test. These test kits are available through University of Vermont Extension and are tested at UVM Agricultural Testing Lab. The Basic Test include pH, available minerals and recommendations for one crop. After the test is analyzed, you have all the information you need to improve your soil.

Compost, manures, and other organic amendments are effective and economical for modification. Good sources of organic matter include leaf mould, sawdust and straw which are decomposed by soil organisms. Peat moss is another popular source of organic matter. and one of the best sources to improve your soil is your very own compost pile, a product resembling dark rich soil, spread and incorporated into garden soil. Some plant a cover crop such as ryegrass to be tilled under in the spring. Now is the time to plant cover crops before the first killing frost. They will hold nutrients that might be lost over the winter and help reduce erosion and loss of topsoil.

The first step in preparing your garden beds for winter is to remove all the plantings and roots, shake out the soil and put the roots on your compost pile. Remove any stones. Add organic material and till 8 to 12 inches deep. Turn it over. Add new top soil. Till again. Then take the back of your rake and make the bed smooth. Now it's ready for the MooDoo (manure available at local nurseries) next spring when you will drop in your seeds and stand back.

Soon after you've done this, we will have a cold snap and hopefully be Thanksgiving, a nice coating of snow. Then you can sit by the fire and look at our seed catalogs, choose seeds and imaging what the beds will look like next season. Remember not to plant the same thing in the same bed more than three years in a row and do try something interesting and new to you in both flower and vegetable beds. Being adventurous in your garden can rarely go far wrong, and if it goes right you'll have a wonderful surprise.

When a rose is a rose is a Rose
By Norman Pellett, President of the Hardy Plant Club (Hardy Plant Club Newsletter) (posted 10/29/02)

The following is slightly modified from an article published in Landscape Plant News by Paul E. Cappiello, Bernheim Arboretum and Research Forest, Clermont, Kentucky.

Naming and protection of new plant varieties has rapidly become the current quagmire of American horticulture. Patents, trademarks, and other branding and protection protocols have taken on a life of their own. The following list provides a description of the requirements and protections for each type.

Cultivar Registration: New plant releases should be registered with the appropriate international registration authority (IRA). The IRA is charged with maintenance of a list of all registered varieties (or cultivars) of the species or genera in question. For example, the National Arboretum is the IRA for the genus Vibernum. The IRA will review the description of the new variety and will make recommendations as to uniqueness of cultivar name. Registration of a new release with the appropriate IRA confers no specific legal rights, not is there any requirement to register with the IRA; however, at the present time it is the only method which can potentially provide for maintenance of a complete master list of introduced forms of a particular plant group.

Plant Patent: A plant patent is awarded for unique plant forms developed or discovered in cultivated areas. In order to patent a plant, it should be unique from other similar plants available or previously described. A patentable plant should be the result of an active selection and/or breeding program or it should have been discovered in a cultivated situation. Of course, this immediately removes the possibility of patent protection for a variant found in the wild. several patent attorneys, however, have interpreted the law to allow a naturally occurring variant to be propagated and grown in cultivation, where it would then be selected for patent protection; a minor loophole exploited by some. Plant patents provide the patent holder the legal authority to license growers to propagate and sell their protected varieties. The protection lasts for 20 years ad is nonrenewable. Once the 20-year limit is reached, there is no more potential for collection of patent royalties.

One major stumbling block with plant patents is restriction of the material prior to patent application and award. Once a plant has been distributed, either intentionally or unintentionally, there is typically little chance to successfully patent that plant variety. The exception is if propagules are distributed under a specific evaluation agreement. Such agreements typically require that the evaluating institution not propagate, distribute or allow collection of vegetative portions of the plant in question. If a plant selection is being considered for protection, it is best not to distribute except under a specific agreement. While few woody ornamental plants will sell in sufficient numbers to warrant patent protection, if one is determined to patent a plant it is advisable to err on the side of being a bit overprotective rather than lose the rights to a potentially lucrative introduction.

At the present time, the majority interpretation of patent laws is that a typical plant patent does not protect seedlings or mutations (sports) of a patent protected variety. A much more involved process - a utility patent - can be secured which can provide for protection of a variety and its progeny. Don't bother with this one unless you have lots of spare money to burn.

As for nomenclature, a plant can and should be patented with the same name used to register it with the IRA. The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office maintains a web site that can be used to scan for previously used patent names. It is well worth a scan through this site prior to any naming exercise regardless of intention to patent or trademark.

Trademark Protection: There is no such thing as a plant trademark. In fact, a trademark name is not even part of the product. The purpose of a trademark is to identify source of the material. The product itself does not even have to be unique. What is trademarked is not the plant but the word. Trademarks last as long as the holder is willing to pay the renewal fee every few years. What makes for a great deal of confusion is that a cultivar may not be trademarked and patented under the same name. If a new introduction is registered with the appropriate IRA and patented under the same cultivar name, that name cannot be trademarked. This is why we end up with plants with two fancy names which many refer to as cultivar names.

To make matters worse, there is a difference between a trademark, TM, and a registered trademark. If someone or some company wants to sell a plant variety under a particular unique trademark name, they can simply use the name with the TM symbol with no registration or application process. This trademark affords the holder certain legal rights but is not the same as a registered trademark. The unregistered trademark indication can be used while the registered trademark is being sought. This indicates that the name has been registered with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. It indicates that the name is unique and does not infringe on the trademark rights of other trademark holders.

So how's that for a mess. Now while some may fault some for perpetuating the confusion by patenting and trademarking under different names, it is essentially the system we've been dealt. The legislation has been written and extensively interpreted. The moral of the story from my perspective, unless you are darned sure that you have a 100,000 a year seller, just trade and share. If you do have the big seller, be sure to do your homework up front.

Some Notes on Ornamental Grasses
By Sarah Kingsley-Richards, Master Gardener (posted 8/20/02)

Assembled from notes taken at “Gardening with Ornamental Grasses” presented by Sharon M Webber, Earth Lines, Buffalo NY at the 2002 Northeast Regional Master Gardener Conference, Cornell University, Ithaca NY.

Ornamental grasses are gaining popularity in the garden and landscape. Most ornamental grasses are very hearty, relatively drought resistant, and deer resistant. They add interest when used to punctuate perennial beds, make a fascinating alternative to hedges, look great with water features, and mix well with bulbs. Grasses can add vertical interest and make play of light and shade. They will spring into motion with the slightest breath, bringing the idea of cool to a hot summer garden where anything moving is refreshing.

Grasses are heavy feeders and demand regularly fertilized soil. A clump that is dying in the middle indicates a lack of nutrients. Compost is the preferred fertilizer for ornamental grasses as they do not respond as well with foliar fertilizers. Be careful not to supply an overabundance of nitrogen which will lead to leggy, fragile growth. Propagate in spring and be generous in your division. A good clump of grass will propagate better than a few strands.

When contemplating the addition of ornamental grasses to your garden, several characteristics must be considered.

• Do you want a clumping grass or a running grass?
  • Running grasses spread by rhizomes and make good ground cover but may become invasive.
• Are you looking for year-round interest or summer growth?
  • Warm season grasses (i.e. Miscanthus) are deciduous and must be cut back in the fall or spring.
  • Cold season grasses (i.e. fescue, Calamagrostis) are evergreen.
• What are the site conditions?
  • Grasses love sun but a few will tolerate shade. There are grasses for a wide variety of soil conditions and most are flexible.
• What is your zone?
  • While there are hardy grasses, the majority seem to fall in zone 5 and warmer. Different references will give different zone listings for grasses and it never hurts to try a one in a slightly cooler climate than recommended. With some winter mulching to protect spring shoots, it may be possible to nurse a zone 5 grass in a zone 4 climate.

Some species to consider:

• Arundo donax (giant reed)
  • zone 5, maybe zone 4 with mulch
  • 15’ tall
  • moisture
  • sun
  • not vigorous runner
  • looks rather like corn
  • maroon autumn plume in warmer climes
• Calamagrostis x acutiflora (feather reed grass)
  • zone 5, maybe zone 4 with mulch
  • 4-5’ tall
  • clumping
  • sun-part shade
  • fine texture
  • vertical
  • some cool season tendencies
  • thin June plumes that mature golden
• Carex (sedge)
  • 1’ at most
  • lower growth habit
  • versatile light requirements
  • like moisture
  • neat ground cover
  • 2,000 cultivars
  • flagilifera –brownish
• Chasmanthium latiflolium aka Uniola latifolium (Northern sea oats)
  • zone 5, maybe zone 4 with mulch
  • 3-4’tall
  • reseeds
  • tolerates some shade
  • blooms in July
  • nodding seed heads
  • almost looks like bamboo
• Deschamsia caespitosa (tufted hair grass)
  • zone 5, maybe zone 4 with mulch
  • 1-2’ tall
  • airy foliage
  • somewhat evergreen
• Elymus arenarius aka Leymus arenarius (blue lyme grass)
  • 1.5-2’
  • runner
  • can be very invasive
  • drought tolerant
  • clip back in July
  • oat-like plume
  • steely blue new growth
• Erianthus ravennae aka Saccharum ravennae (Northern plume grass)
  • 12’ tall
  • full sun
  • nice pampas grass substitute in cooler climates
• Festuca (fescue)
  • reseeds
  • all around decent plant, etc.
• Hakonechloa macra (Hakone grass/Japenese forest grass)
  • dicey hardiness -6/5?
  • 1’ tall
  • shady
  • beautiful
  • bright foliage
• Imperata cylindrica (Japanese blood grass)
  • can be very invasive
  • ‘red baron’ cultivar less invasive but cultivars not well monitored
• Molina caerulea (moor grass)
  • zone 6/5
  • 3’ tall
  • clump
  • tolerate part shade
  • July-September
  • doesn’t look great after frost
  • variegated holds up better
• Panicum virgatum (switch grass)
  • easily zone 4
  • 3-5/6’
  • tall clumps
  • sun
  • crown of plumes
• Pennisetum alopecuroides/orientale (fountain grass)
  • 1-4’
  • tolerate part shade
  • soft effect
  • bottlebrush plumes
• Phlaris arundinacea (ribbon grass)
  • infamous invasive runner
  • hardy
  • likes moisture
  • tolerates shade
  • check out ‘strawberries and cream’ cultivar
• Miscanthus sinensis (Chinese silver grass)
  • some zone 4
  • 5-7’ usually
  • can be up to 12’
  • clump
  • tolerates shade
  • heavy feeders
  • not too much nitrogen
  • vase shape
  • fabulous plumes
  • big
  • M. sinensis ‘Gracillimus’ = Maiden grass
  • M. strictus (porcupine grass) is more hardy and more upright than M. sobrinus (zebragrass) but otherwise identical
• Spodiopogon sibericus (frost grass)
  • zone 4/5
  • tolerate part shade
  • underused IMHO
  • bamboo-like foliage
  • reddish orange
  • good specimen
• Isolepis cernua (fiber optic grass)
  • zone 7/8
  • fine texture
  • nice in pots

Suggested references:

The Encyclopedia of Ornamental Grasses: How to Grow and Use over 250 Beautiful and Versatile Plants
by John Greenlee, Derek Fell (Photographer)

Ornamental Grass Gardening: Design Ideas, Functions and Effects
by Thomas A. Reinhardt, Martina Reinhardt, Mark Moscowitz (Contributor)

A Compost Way of Life
By Tatiana Schreiber, Master Gardener Intern (Brattleboro Reformer 7/27/02) (posted 7/23/02)

At a time when we live with threats of terrorist attacks, when many of us fear nuclear contamination if such an attack should occur close to home, when the Western third of our country seems to be drying up and burning up at the same time, and when our nation seems headed into a prolonged state of war against amorphous targets around the globe, why would anyone spend time thinking about something as mundane and local as compost?

I've been thinking about this because, for whatever reason, I've long been a passionate advocate of composting, and take every opportunity to try to persuade, encourage, and cajole others to my compost way of life. Why be passionate about a mess of garbage in you backyard?

Well, lots of reasons really, but I think the fundamental one can be gleaned from the work itself. Compost, of course, comes from "composition." That is, it's the act of combining parts or elements to form a whole, according to my big dictionary. When we think of a fine composition, a literary work, a painting, or a piece of music, for example, we know that the artist has combined her talent, knowledge, and experience from every part of her life to form this wonder that is a synthesis of all these disparate parts. Isn't that what we need in the world these days? A way of bringing disparate parts together?

But really, isn't that a little grandiose when we're talking about compost? That's the stuff made of broccoli stalks, potato peels, mushy bananas, wet leaves, weeds, and a lot of other stuff you can find lying around the yard. Maybe, but there's a reason we compost aficionados call it "black gold." When all that stuff comes together, and is joined by a wildly diverse array of bacteria (the psychrophilic, the mesophilic, and the thermophilic, to be precise) along with the flatworms, rotifers, nematodes, mold mites, springtails, millipedes, centipedes and earthworms...well, they really get down and have a good time. They take all that stuff, decompose and recompose it, and voila, you get an incredibly rich, dark soil. It smells good, it feeds good, and it's great for you garden. It improves soil structure, so your soils hold moisture (meaning it won't wash away so easily in floods, and it will keep you plants healthy in droughts). It also provides the very diverse assortment of nutrients plants need to grow well and resist pests and disease. Not to mention providing us with the most nutritious food you can get, grown in the compost-enriched soil. At a time when top soil is being lost due to wind and water erosion world wide at a tragic rate (about 6 tons of soil is lost per acre, per year in North, Central and South America -and twice that rate in Asia,) soil that took thousands of years to accumulate, I find it reassuring to know that we can actually rebuild soil, on which all our lives depend, simply by making compost.

There's ample evidence that compost helps control plant and soil diseases, probably because the diversity of life that exists within healthy compost includes beneficial bacteria that combat disease. Then there's the reduction in waste that composting promotes. One study found that backyard composters divert an average of 650 pounds of organic materials each year that would otherwise go to landfills, or be incinerated. Three households can divert almost a ton of material per year.

Somehow this magic of combining waste products, bringing in a whole orchestra of live performers, providing ample amounts of air and water, and ending up with a gift to the world, seems like a metaphor we can sue these days.

So, what else can I say to get you to start composting? Maybe you've heard it's difficult. You need to pile up special ingredients in a particular order, add bioactivators, turn it every week, check its temperature, in short, coddle it and feed it and baby it or it won't work. Maybe you've heard it's smelly, or it attracts animals, or you're afraid it will upset the neighbors. Well, none of this stuff is necessarily true.

All you really need is a spot in your yard (or even on your porch, or on the roof, as I saw people doing recently in urban areas in Mexico) and a way to hold the compost materials in place. A length of hardware cloth, tied into a cylinder about three or four feet in diameter will work fine. Two or three containers or holding bins are ideal, as you then let one sit with your materials happily becoming compost while you fill up another one. Put all your kitchen waste in the bin (but no meat or bones because that's the stuff that attracts animals) and every time you add kitchen scraps, cover it with some yard waste -like leaves, grass clippings or weeds. If you have lots of yard waste, keep that in a separate pile, and use it to add to your main compost bin whenever you add the kitchen scraps. Don't add too many grass clippings at once -as they do tend to turn slimy and smelly, but a one or two inch layer is great. The pile needs moisture, so keep it open to the rain; and it needs air providing air is the reason people turn piles frequently, but it's not necessary. you can just poke several sticks through the pile, and move them around from time to time to create air channels. Or, you can invest in an aerator -a ski-pole like tool used to reach into compost and stir it around, adding that all important air. But that's it. Just wait. In three to six months, you'll take off the top layer that's still not decomposed, and underneath find that great black gold. If you're the athletic type, and you like turning compost, you can do all this a whole lot faster.

So no, we can't solve all the world's problems by making compost, but we can do a small part, and that's where it starts. Bringing the parts together and creating a whole.

I would be happy to answer compost questions at tatianas@sover.net

Hardy Heathers -Hard Scrabble Plants
By Molly Martin, Master Gardener (Brattleboro Reformer 7/13/02) (posted 7/22/02)

Contrary to skeptics, heathers are tough little plants. They flourish on the moors of the British Isles despite (or because of) sheep grazing, grouse pecking and controlled burning. They grow wild in rocky crevices at the Arctic Circle south to North Africa and from the coast of western Europe to the Ural Mountains. With this range, it shouldn't be surprising to find heathers growing in Vermont Gardens.

Like any cultivar propagated "under glass," commercially grown hardy heathers have a few requirements that their cousins in the wild enjoy naturally. First, make sure the heather you are buying is a hardy variety, not one with the prefix "Mediterranean" or "Mexican," both of which are annuals in our climate. Once the plant's hardiness is established, select a spot in your garden with light, acidic soil (a pH of 4.5 - 5.5,) good drainage and at least a half-day of sun. To increase acidity, add peat moss, pine mulch and/or oak leaf compost. A slope, a rock garden or a raised bed helps ensure good drainage. Heathers prefer lean soil, so no need to fuss with fertilizers. One dose of a diluted mixture of plant food for acid-loving plants in April or May, mixed with a tablespoon of Epsom Salts per gallon of water to aid in the absorption of nutrients, is all the tonic these plants need to jump-start them into spring.

After the snow melts and the forsythia is in bloom, prune your heather below last year's flowers, taking off as much as one third of the plant if necessary. This is a must because once the blossoms drop off, the bare spot that remains never fills in with new growth and your plant will develop a leggy, straggly look. First year plants will need a weekly watering if rain is scarce, but after that they are considered drought resistant.

Heathers have tiny scale-like leaves that grow along the stems and come in a variety of greens, greys and golds. Miniature single or double azaleas-shaped blossoms appear in the fall in a palette of colors from shell pink through shades of lavender, amethyst and beetroot. Plants also provide the gardener with different growing habits -- either bushy, upright, or prostrate. And if these choices aren't enough to dazzle you, some plants have foliage that changes color in the fall to rival our brilliant New England landscape. A sample of the some favorites are Allegro, Blazeaway, Corbett's Red, Rubrum, Silver Knight, and Wickwar Flame.

Heathers Calluna vulgaris and Heather Ericas are small evergreen shrubs belonging to the Ericaceae family. They make ideal companion plants because their requirements are similar and their blooming times sequential: Ericas bloom in the early spring and summer; Callunas in the fall.

Ericas have small needle-like leaves and flowers that resemble miniature blueberry blossoms. They offer a range of foliage and flower color similar to Callunas but don't require annual pruning - well, just enough to keep them within bounds and free of split stems.

Erica carnea is one of the hardiest species of any heath or heather and thrives in almost any soil. Most E. carneas have a prostrate habit and grow quickly. Some favorites are 'Ann Sparkes,' 'Foxhollow,' 'Springwood White,' and 'Vivellii.' Other Ericas to look for are: E. cinerea 'C.D. Eason' and 'Eden Valley;' E.x darleyensis 'Kramer's Rote' and 'White Perfection' and E. vagans 'Mrs. D. F. Manwell.' Rock Spray Nursery in Truro, MA, is a mail order house that offers a wide selection of both hardy heaths and heathers. In addition, their full-color catalog is an excellent reference manual for beginners and experienced heather gardeners. To order call 508-349-6769 or e-mail heather@rockspray.com.

Closer to home, the Harlow Farm Stand on Rt. 5 in Westminster offers a limited selection of hardy heaths and heathers and Little Siberia Perennials off Rt. 100 in Granville features demonstration heather beds and a wide assortment of hardy heathers.

For those of you who want a "heather connection", the Northeast Heather Society produces a quarterly newsletter and holds four meetings a year. Anyone interested in joining can send a $10 check to: Treasurer, NEHS, 55 Upland Ave., Falmouth, MA 02540.

With just a few needs met, these hard scrabble evergreen shrubs can add years of all-season color and texture to your garden.

Invasive Plants
By Mary Lou Buchanan, Master Gardener (Brattleboro Reformer 6/29/02) (posted 6/27/02)

What is an invasive plant? The scientific definition is a species that is non-native or alien to a specific area and by being there, it is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health. In other words, a plant that finds its way into your garden either by accident or intentionally and you spend the rest of your gardening years trying to get rid of it.

Invasives can be plants, animals and other organisms like microbes. The primary means of invasive introductions are human beings. Arriving in post colonial times and having a very high seed dispersal rate, invasives establish themselves very easily, grow rapidly, are persistent, and compete for moisture and nutrients. They are dispersed by trees and winds; birds and animals eat the berries and the seeds are eliminated in their droppings; humans carry seeds such as burdock on their clothes.

When the geography of an area is disturbed whether natural or man made, when water levels are disrupted and power lines are installed with the clearing of rights of way; when gravel pits are dug, it opens the door of all kinds of introductions. Every time these situations occur, it sets the stage for an invasive plant to find a new home as most of them are not particular where they live.

Native plants were here in precolonial North America as documented in old records and are considered to be indigenous to a specific area. At the time of European colonization many species were discovered and written about. Without human help, they seem to have arrived in a region by a natural range extension.

Natural habitats contain a variety of species. Because of this diversity the system works together and allows it to respond to human and environmental disturbances. When invasive plants introduce themselves and become established they expand both in numbers and the space they occupy until other plants are pushed out. This reduces the number of different species and a decrease of biological diversity occurs. Eventually natives disappear and overall health of the plant community is drastically affected.

One example is the stunning but notorious Purple Loosestrife "Lythrum salicaria." Inhabiting damp riversides, swamps and the even the ditches of the median strips of the interstate, it is quickly moving into desirable areas and becoming almost impossible to stop. Flowers from an adult plant can produce more than two million seeds a year. It does not provide habitat or food for wildlife, tends to clog drainage ditches and pollutes spawning areas in ponds and wet lands.

Another unwelcome plant is Japanese Knotweed "Polygonum cuspidatum" often called bamboo. Introduced in the late 1800's as an ornamental it soon escaped into the wild. It spreads by rhizomes which can travel up to 65 feet from a single plant. In the fall when the dead canes fall to the ground, a dense mat is created through which nothing can penetrate except the next generation of Knotweed. In late summer when it blossoms it is quite attractive ...somewhat like Aruncus.

There are some things we, as individuals, can do to slow down this process. Nurseries and botanical gardens are always on the lookout for new species to introduce to the public and home gardeners want to be the first on the block to acquire it. It is only after several years that it is discovered whether it is an appropriate plant. There is no mechanism in place to track how many introductions take place every year. Who knows what will become a pest? It is known that with the right conditions there are serious problems with many plants. The same traits that define an invasive plants are the same traits that most appeal to the home gardener: fast growing, lots of fruits and quick to take hold.

It is important to remember that in the home environment, an invasive plant or shrub can be planted in the garden and not create a problem. Whenever we make the tour of the yard, sprouts and volunteers can be dealt with quickly. The difficulties arise when there is little or no maintenance and plants are allowed to go wild. It takes only two to three years for some of these to completely inundate an area creating such havoc that in some cases it is almost impossible to overcome.

Becoming aware of the characteristics of invasive plants is one step in helping to reduce the spread. If it is noticed that plant nurseries are stocking some of these plants, perhaps it could be mentioned to the owner that there might be other choices. Many plant nurseries have stopped stocking some of these exotics but a mention of their traits might further help to eliminate their sale.

To learn more about invasives try these web sites: www.invasivespecies.gov; www.infoplease.com; www.plants.usda.gov/plants/cgibin/plant. For additional information, the 1998, Vol.2, No. 3 issue of the New England Wild Flower Society devoted the entire issue to invasives.

A community takes root in Bellows Falls
By Dawn Petrovsky, Master Gardener (Brattleboro Reformer 6/1/02) (posted 6/20/02)

In the village of Bellows Falls, at the bottom of the ski hill, sits a small plot of land that is occupied by eight families. Eight families who share concerns about the environment, especially when it comes to the food they eat. Each family tends their own plot of land at the Bellows Falls Community Garden.

Americorp volunteers established the Community Garden in 1995. Since 1996 it has been run fruitfully by garden members who work hard to have the privilege of raising their own organic vegetables and flowers. While the majority of members have been single-parent and traditional families, also included have been senior citizens, disabled individuals and one 4-H group.

The current trend of joining a community farm, or CSA, appears to be popular, but the community garden member has far more advantages. So far, we've been able to avoid a user fee for plot space. Free seeds are usually received in bulk from organizations such as Seeds of Change or America the Beautiful. The horticulture students from Southern Vermont Career Education Center have donated time and seedlings. Local growers have donated seedlings, while students who attend Bellows Falls Union High School and Fall Mount Regional High School have earned many community service hours. Members in a community garden plant what the want, what they know their families will eat or simply the produce they like best.

The true investment is that of time: Planting, mulching, weeding and harvesting are hard, time-consuming chores. The rewards for this hard work are many -organic food, camaraderie with fellow gardeners, increased awareness of our environment, reduced stress, increased civic participation and better nutrition.

Each plot measures approximately 70 by 12 feet. lot of room to grow flowers, veggies and herbs. The garden is surrounded by a lightweight chicken wire fence that was installed to thwart deer, neighborhood cats and a very bold, fat ground hog who fine-dined on everyone's seedlings our first year. We've had our problems with unwelcome visitors -Mexican bean beetles, aphids, squash bugs, vandals. Yes, unfortunately vandalism has befallen the community garden, but we plug along.

I think every gardener has two very positive traits: perseverance and faith. We won't give up what is valuable to us. Our optimism is renewed with the simple beauty of the sunflowers, the wonder on our children's faces as they watch the seedling emerge from the carefully planted seed, and the joy and pride in our harvest.

Community gardening isn't a new concept. During the World War II era, "Victory Gardens" were a patriotic and productive activity. By 1943, and estimated 20 million families grew Victory Gardens in plots across America, supplying one third of the nation's fresh vegetables. Community garden members donate excess produce to Our Place or the Community Dinner. Members have participated in local beautification projects and have been involved in the annual Herrick's Cove Wildlife Festival sponsored by the Ascutney Mountain Audubon Society, manning a table where individuals can learn more about the garden, take home a seedling or take part in other activities.

As coordinator for six years, I tell people that the garden is a labor of love for me, and I truly mean it. Along with my veggies and flowers, I am fortunate to have the support of my fellow gardeners and the Master Gardener Program. I earned my MG status in 2000, and have attended monthly meetings with members of our southeast regional group. We share resources, keep the group informed about on going projects and lend each other valuable advice and friendship.

Bellows Falls Community Garden members are looking forward to a productive and positive growing season, and hope the same is true for gardeners, locally and throughout the world.

Tomato start time is upon us
By Jean Kerbel, Master Gardener (Brattleboro Reformer 5/18/02) (posted 6/20/02)

If I could only grow one vegetable, it would have to be tomatoes. However, growing tomatoes can be a challenge to many home gardeners. Our short Vermont growing season often means slow-ripening fruits, and when the first frosts of fall come, many home gardeners find themselves with an overabundance of green tomatoes. To avoid this pitfall, make sure to get your tomato starts in the ground between mid-May and mid-June. if you are using the protective water walls, you can transplant even earlier, otherwise you will want to wait until the frost-free date. Here are some tips for your home garden:

• Plant only high quality, semi-hardened transplants without blossoms. Pinch blossoms off if they have them. young transplants with new flowers will delay foliage growth and may cause an abundance of flowers too late in the season.
• Plant tomato transplants about one to two feet apart in rows three to five feet apart. Rows can be closer together if the tomato plants are supported with cages or other supports. Ten to 15 tomato plants will feed a family of four.
• Tomatoes suffer more shock in transplanting than do most vegetables. Prevent transplant shock be setting plants out in a protected area for one to two weeks before transplanting to their final plane in the garden. Heat, cold or bright sunlight can damage tender tomato transplants. To harden them off, set them outdoors in their pots in a protected place so they get some warm sun, a gentle wind, and even some cool (not freezing) nights.
• Thoroughly water plants 12-14 hours before transplanting to the garden.
• Be careful about fertilizing young plants -too much nitrogen can cause excessive vegetative growth and delay fruit set.
• Irrigate tomatoes to maintain a steady moisture content in the soil to avoid blossom end rot, a disease where the blossom end of the fruit rots.
• Use plastic sheeting or other heat-transmitting ground mulches and/or row covers, cloches or tunnels if possible for tomatoes especially when the nights are cool. Covers will improve early growth and protect plants from light frosts. remove the covers after about four weeks, or when daytime temperatures get into the 80's. Plastic mulch conserves moisture, increases soil temperatures, protects the fruits from rot and enhances yields. Raised beds are perfect for tomatoes because soil warms faster and gives the plants a good start.
• Lengthen the tomato harvest by gathering mature green tomatoes before the first frost. store them at 50 degrees and ripen at 70 degrees. You can wrap them in dry newspaper and they will ripen slowly.

Protect transplants from wind and cold
By Jean Kerbel, Master Gardener (Brattleboro Reformer 5/4/02) (posted 6/19/02)

Plants newly transplanted into the garden can benefit from some protection against the wind and cold for at leas a week after planting. Wind can dry out tender young plants and temperature changes can shock or even kill them. Gardeners can protect plants with materials found around the house. Try the following methods for protecting young transplants:

• Place a shingle or similar type of broad, flat object in the ground on the windward side of the young plant.
• Use old tires to surround heat loving pepper and tomato transplants, planted after the last potential frost.
• Cut the bottoms out of gallon plastic milk containers and place them over individual plantings.
• Arch old newspapers over rows of plantings to form a protective tent, with the centerfold in the newspaper forming the peak of the tent. Anchor the outer ends of the newspaper pages touching the ground on either side of the plant row with stones or other heavy objects.
• Place large Cans with the tops and bottoms cut out over individual plantings to provide wind protection.
• Use plastic sheeting to form a long tent over rows of plantings. Drive stakes into the ground at either end of the row and string a piece of rope between the stakes so it is suspended over the row about a foot off the ground. then drape the plastic over the rope and anchor it to the ground on either side of the row with stones or other weights. Be aware that plants may be damaged if the day is hot.
• Use spun row cover material, such as Remay, over young plants. These materials protect from wind and cold, as well as some pests. As with plastic, spun row cover material must be secured tightly.

Savoring Vegetables of the Past
By Jesse Weitz, Master Gardener (Brattleboro Reformer 4/6/02) (posted 6/19/02)

Heirloom: n., A valued possession passed down in a family through succeeding generations.

Like your grandfather's pocket watch or your grandmother's recipe for beef stew, there are also heirlooms passed down through the vegetable world.

The heirloom vegetables of today remain from a time when much of the hybridization of plants happened within a family garden plot or farm. For example, in 1900, there were 7,000 varieties of apples in the United States and today we only have seed available for 1,000 varieties. A seed variety requires continuous cultivation to survive. The loss of a single strain of plant leads to extinction. In general, we have less seed choices available to us today because many varieties of plants were overshadowed by their more commercially successful counterparts.

One of my favorite heirloom varieties is the "Moon and Stars" watermelon. this watermelon was believed to originate in the Volga River region of Russia and was introduced in the United States in 1926. It was an extremely popular seed during the 1930's and then seemed to disappear. It was rediscovered in the early 1980's, in Missouri, where a man named Merle Van Doren had been maintaining the seed for many decades. The seed of this melon is once again a popular choice in a number of seed catalogs. The melon gets its name from the beautiful pattern of bright yellow spots (starts) and a single large spot (moon) which cover the fruit and foliage. The flesh is pinkish-red and very sweet.

Heirloom tomatoes alone could create a vibrant rainbow across your garden plot: from Oxheart Red to Nebraska Wedding Orange to Marizol Gold to Green Zebra to Cherokee Purple and Black Plum. The king of taste remains the Brandywine tomato. First offered in 1889 around Philadelphia, 'Brandywine' produces large, succulent, pink beefsteak tomatoes, up to two pounds each.

The color splash continues into the heirloom lettuce patch. A long history trails behind the butterhead lettuce 'Speckled.' It traveled with the Martin family in the 1660's from Germany to Lancaster, Pennsylvania and then, on to Waterloo County, Ontario in 1799. The lettuce leaves are apple green, covered in specks of maroon. This lettuce is a stunning addition to salads.

For a vegetable, fruit, herb or flower to be considered an heirloom it must meet a few general criteria. First, it must be open pollinated. This means any seeds saved from an heirloom will provide you with the same variety the next year. Heirloom vegetables reward their growers year after year. Commercially hybridized garden seeds will not necessarily produce similar offspring from the seed. They are important to large scale growers because they offer consistence. These seeds produce disease resistant, shipping tolerant and visually flawless vegetables often at the expense of taste. However, the priority of a home gardener is often taste -what are a few flaws among friends?

Another requirement of an heirloom is that the plant variety has a history. There are some people who say an heirloom variety must have been in recorded existence for at least fifty years. Others require that the variety be initially produced outside the commercial seed trade. The common denominator of many heirloom plants is their long, local histories.

If you are having a hard time choosing which heirloom varieties to plant, it is worth a trip to Walker Farm on Route 5 in Dummerston. They grow and sell a beautiful selection of heirloom seedlings in the spring and fruits and vegetables throughout the summer. Also, check out the Brattleboro Farmer's Market for heirloom vegetable varieties. there are many valuable resources from which to obtain heirloom seeds. One of the best sources for New England gardeners is Fedco Seeds, out of Waterville, Maine. They are a cooperative mail order business specializing in vegetable seed, fruit trees and organic growers' supplies. Their website is www.fedcoseeds.com and catalogs are available.

Many organizations encourage the continued cultivation of heirloom varieties of garden seed. The Seed Saver's Exchange in Decorah, Iowa has dedicated their farm to cultivating heirloom seeds on a national level. More than 20,000 rare vegetable varieties are being maintained on their Heritage Farm. All heirloom plants have a personal story, whether it is of a family, a community of people, or a region. Heirloom garden plants could also be called "handed down" plants. They open the doors to the long history of cultivation.

Defy Mother Nature and Plant out of Season
By Sonia Swierczynski, Master Gardener (Brattleboro Reformer 3/23/02) (posted 6/18/02)

Why is it human nature to want what we can't have? For me, this is not limited to Antonio Banderas, but extends to thousands of plants that are recommended for zones south of Vermont. Banderas may be out of the question, but for those plants whose labels suggest Vermont winters may be a challenge, I'm experimenting with zonal denial.

For those of you not familiar with the USDA zone ratings, the United States has been divided into zones according to average low winter temperatures. Zone maps are available on the back of seed packets, in gardening books and magazines. Plant catalogs and reliable nurseries usually list the coldest zone in which a plant can be expected to survive. If you live in zone 5, then you should have success with plants rated for zones 5, 4, 3, and 2. Most of Vermont and northern Massachusetts fall within zones 5, 4, and 3. With planting zones, the higher the number, the milder the climate.

It is important to remember that zones are a guide, not an absolute. Other factors affecting winter hardiness are drainage, mulch, snow cover, general plant health and winter weather. Planting near bodies of water, stone walls or buildings tends to raise the temperature of the surrounding area. After Experimenting for several years, I've learned some tricks to defy the "zone gods."

Your property most likely contains several micro-climates. These are protected areas where plants recommended for higher zones have a good chance of survival. Look at the conditions of each bed or planting area and see where the warmer areas are, remembering that snow is a good insulator.

If you put plants in later in the season, as I often do, they can pop out early when subjected to alternate freezing and thawing. Mulch can help this situation. To avoid covering the plant with too much mulch that will retain excessive moisture and possibly rot the crown, try covering the plant first with an upside down empty plastic flower pot. place a bamboo stake through one of the drainage holes into the soil to keep the pot from blowing away. Mulch around the pot freely and fearlessly. For a woody perennial or shrub, a cage can be made from sheep fencing or chicken wire and filled with leaves or mulch. In early spring, clear the mulch away promptly so new growth can gradually adjust to the sun and other elements.

Correct siting is crucial for winter survival. Trees shouldn't get so warm that the bark splits because of sharp temperature contrasts between sunny and shady sides. Plants need moisture in winter, but not so much that they rot. Plants that may not be naturally hardy in zones 5 or 4, may have a chance of surviving on a south-facing slope. Avoid the area at the bottom of the slope where cold air is likely to pool.

Evergreens, fences and hedges can help buffer cold winds and provide a sheltered location for plants. Think of a stone wall as a "zone wall." It provides a great moderating influence during colder months and gives gardens a head start in the spring. Be aware, however, that when rainfall is scarce, it will be very dry near the stone wall. So, don't plant water-loving plants there unless you plan to be attentive with the hose. I have a David Austin rose, a buddleia and santolina planted on top of my stone retaining wall. According to the USDA zone guidelines, I had no business planting these there, but they all made it through last winter.

Plant early in the season in amended soil. This helps the plant get acclimated to the site. Apply mulch after planting and water when needed. Bark mulch starts breaking down after a year and adds organic matter to the soil. Cocoa shells are attractive and smell good, but some dogs have eaten them with disastrous results. They are also expensive and can be rather slippery during a rainy spell. I mistrust buckwheat hulls because they never seem to rot.

When contemplating plants rated for a warmer zone, I try to give them every advantage. I live at 1200 feet on a hillside with lots of south- and west-facing slopes and snow cover almost every winter. I think of this as a zone 4 garden, and rocky. The land is dry and the soil thin. With good drainage, I could grow cactus and agave if properly protected during the winter. Many moisture loving plants are out of the question. With deeper soil, I might be able to grow them, but that is in the future, I hope. I try to chose plants that fit within the already existing parameters.

Plants I am rooting for in the spring include Oak leaf Hydrangea, Hydrangea quercifolia "Snowflake," and Seven Sons Tree-Heptacodium miconioides. All were given careful siting and copious amounts of shredded bark mulch. None are rated for my zone. In a few weeks, I'll find out if experimenting with improbable plants has succeeded.

Indoor Gardens: A Jump Start on Spring
By Jean Kerbel, Master Gardener (Brattleboro Reformer 3/9/02) (posted 6/18/02)

Planting and watching garden seeds spring to life is one of the most rewarding events in a gardener's year. While a greenhouse is ideal, most gardeners use a sunny window sill and it is even possible to raise healthy plants in a dark basement with a row of fluorescent grow lights. Starting plants indoors gives them a jump on the season. Also, you will find much more plant variety if you shop for seeds. Some rather interesting plants are available in seed form only. Follow these tips for starting seeds in the early spring:

Don't start your seeds too early. Different seeds require different starting dates. Seed packets usually tell how many weeks to start seeds before transplanting. Count backwards from the recommended time to determine when to start planting. Gather your equipment: flats or other containers, planting mix, seeds, watering can, labels and marker; and prepare your work space. Don't forget to wash your containers in soapy water that has bleach in it. The usual formula is nine parts water to one part of bleach. Rinse thoroughly. Fill your flats with soil-less starting mix or sterile potting mix.

Starting seeds indoors with garden soil is the surest way to introduce fungi that causes "damping off" disease. You will know you have this problem if your seedlings keel over in patches or if a fine, cottony "wool" appears on the soil surface. If a "damping off" fungal infection occurs, spray the seedlings and soil surface with chamomile tea. To make the tea, pour one cup boiling water over one-fourth cup dried chamomile blossoms. (Available where bulk herbs are sold.) Let site until cool, and strain into a spray bottle. Chamomile has anti-fungal properties that can help with fungal infections.

Cover the seed with a bit more of the planting mix. (Some seeds need light to sprout and these you do not cover. It should say on the seed packet.) Seeds should normally be covered to a depth of three times their size. Keep soil uniformly moist but not soggy. Maintain the air temperature at 65-80 degrees for best results. Providing bottom heat with heat tape, a heating pad protected from moisture or even the top of the refrigerator, help to speed up the germination process. Cover the flat and keep it in a warm place. Germination time will vary from seed to seed and species to species. However, the process is always the same.

The first step is the absorption of water. As the seed swells it develops considerable pressure that eventually ruptures the seed coat allowing the root to emerge. Meanwhile, internal metabolic changes are gearing up for growth. Germination is dependent on several factors: condition of the seed, presence of water, sufficient air space, temperature and light.

Provide plenty of light after seeds germinate. When using a sunny window, turn plants daily to prevent a permanent tilt as plants stretch toward the light. If you are using indoor grow lights, place them very close to seedlings, no more than six inches above the plants. By suspending shop lights on chains, you can raise them up as plants grow. Cool fluorescent fixtures are sufficient, although full spectrum lighting may be used if available. Keep the lights on 16 hours a day. A timer is a big help in this regard.

Begin fertilizing at half strength, when the seed leaves begin to turn yellow. Don't waste money on fertilizers from the start, as seeds contain all of the nutrients they need to begin their growth.

Thin seedlings so they have plenty of room for their roots to grow. Shortly after your seeds have germinated and soon after they have developed their first true leaves, you will want to transplant them into a deeper container with a richer growing medium. A kitchen fork works well to lift them out gently. Watch your seedlings and check for signs of wilting. If they droop, don't pour on more water. Wilted plants should be kept shaded and cool until they perk up, which shouldn't take more than a day or two.

Temperatures should average approximately 79 degrees in the day and 60 degrees at night. If possible, a fan helps with air circulation and helps to strengthen the stems. The light a plant receives makes it possible for the leaves to manufacture starches and sugars. But a period of darkness is necessary for the plants to put these new compounds to use. Plants don't rest at night; they digest and grow!

Harden off your seedlings before planting them outdoors. Slowly introduce them to sunlight, wind, and cooler temperatures over a period of a week or so before actually planting outdoors.

THE MIGHTY EMPRESS!
by Dr. Mark C. Starrett, Associate Professor of Horticulture, UVM
(from the Friends of the Hort Farm Newsletter September 2001) (posted 4/8/02)

Some of you may have wandered onto the UVM campus this summer and found an unusual sight! There are plants that appear to be giant sunflowers growing along Stafford Hall in the Horticulture Club's annual plant border, but what is odd about them is that they are 30 feet tall with leaves 3-4 feet across! Well… these plants aren't sunflowers at all! These plants are called, "Empress Tree" or "Princess Tree" (Paulownia tomentosa) and are native to China and were introduced to the United States around 1840.

The tree was named in 1835 after Princess Anna Pavlovna (1795-1865) on the occasion of her 40th birthday. Anna was daughter of Czar Paul I of Russia and was the wife of Prince Willem of the Netherlands when it was named for her.

There are several interesting stories regarding the introduction of the "Empress Tree" to our continent. It seems that the seed capsules when dry are very light in weight and were used as we would use styrofoam "peanuts" today as packing material (or, hopefully, those "peanuts" made out of cornstarch which dissolve in water and are more environmentally-friendly then the styrofoam!). Anyway, the capsules tended to open during transit and seeds would blow out of the packing crates. There are estimates that each capsule contains approximately 2,000 seeds! Since most of the movement of goods during this period was by train, you will find that many of the trees originally sprouted up along railroad tracks. This is one reason why this plant has become so widespread across the U.S. The plant had spread from the east Coast to California by 1856.

The other reason this tree has dispersed so readily across the country is due to the plant's ability to adapt to most soil types and climatic conditions. Unfortunately for us, the above-ground portion of the tree is not really hardy in Vermont. It may make it through a few winters but any temperatures below 0°F typically causes severe bud and stem damage. It takes several years for the tree to become mature enough to flower, so in Vermont, we won't get to see the wonderful, 3" lavender, tube-shaped flowers in summer. Instead, trees grown in our climate will produce huge leaves and send up tremendous growth each year from the roots! I think this feature alone is good enough to grow the plant in any garden. The sheer size can add a bold and dramatic statement in anyone's garden! The trees also make an "instant" hedge to screen a view in summer or can provide a vertical element in any landscape design.

Historically, Empress Tree has been used as a source of timber in China, with records back as far as 2,600 years ago! The use of this tree for timber has been increasing dramatically around the world. There are presently between 4 and 5 million acres now being grown for timber worldwide. The lumber is a light golden-tan color. It is light in weight with a straight grain that does not crack, warp or split. In Japan, where the wood is highly prized for carving, it is often used for funereal boxes. The wood is also carved into clogs. Empress tree is purportedly the fastest growing hardwood species on earth and for this reason is a valuable crop for timber or as a renewable biofuel supply.

Empress Tree has several other quality characteristics including a fibrous root system which can stabilize soils and won't buckle sidewalks. The deep root system is capable of exploring and obtaining mineral nutrients below the zone where most other tree species are capable. These nutrients are found in the leaves and stems of the plant. The leaves are especially high in nitrogen, and in the timber groves where they are grown, the leaves are raked, baled and used for animal fodder. The leaves also decompose readily and are a valuable addition to any compost.

Empress Trees are amenable to most soil types but must have good drainage. They do not like "wet feet"! Sand and loam are preferable, but they will tolerate clay soils. The more sun and heat; the faster the new growth. The ones planted next to Stafford Hall are on the west-side of the building and therefore get ample sun and heat. The map below details the areas where Empress Tree may be considered for use as a timber production tree. They typically die back when temperatures go below 0°F.

So if you are interested in giving this tree a try, plan to visit The Friends of the Hort. Farm plant sales next year.

When: At the Rhododendron Walk and Plant Sale on Thursday, June 6, 2002 starting at 6 p.m OR at the second Rhododendron Walk and Plant Sale on Saturday, June 8, 2002 at 1 p.m.

For further information about the Empress Tree, visit one of the following websites:
http://www.idrc.ca/library/document/071235/
http://www.paulowniatrees.com/
http://www.paulowniatrees.org/
http://www.paulownia.com/
http://www.dragontrees.com/
http://www.paulownia.org/

Certify Your Backyard, It's For the Birds!
by Linda McLenithan, Master Gardener Volunteer
(Presenting at the Arlington Garden Club in March.) (posted 2/2202)

The National Wildlife Federation's Backyard Wildlife Habitat program was started in 1973 to acknowledge and encourage individuals who garden for wildlife. The NWF will formally acknowledge your efforts with a national certification program. The program encourages everyone to plan their landscape with the needs of wildlife in mind. There are over 30,000 backyard sites certified in the program including homeowners, businesses, community groups and schools; individuals and groups that are all interested in creating wildlife and environmentally friendly landscapes. So, how do you go about becoming a certified site? Everyone who provides the four basic habitat elements and who takes steps to conserve natural resources in their yard may apply for certification. The four basic elements are as follows:
food, water, cover and places to raise young

Access your space for these basic requirements for survival. In addition to your bird feeders, do you plant native perennials and annuals suited to the site conditions to supply food? Native plantings, including shrubs, flowers and trees eliminates the need for chemical fertilizers, herbicides and supplemental watering. To find out which plants are native to your area, contact your local extension office, in Vermont, the web site is http://pss.uvm.edu/mg/mg. Try to provide a year-round water source. Evergreens and shrubs provide protective cover from weather and predators. Rock, leaf and mulch piles as well as that Vermont staple- the wood pile- can also provide good cover. Your evergreens and shrubs will also provide a place for many species to raise their young. Dead and dying trees have their uses as cavity-nesting species such as owls and flying squirrels will be happy to call them home. A red squirrel chose one of my bluebird boxes to nurture her babies in last spring and since the boxes have been up for 4 years with no bluebirds nesting in them (although they've checked them out many times) I thought well, why not? Someone wants them. The babies were cute and although everyone told me "oh, you'll be sorry, you'll never get birds now", I didn't have the heart to evict them. In fact, I even went so far as to buy squirrel food and leave it at the base of the post so Mama squirrel wouldn't have to go too far for food. Well, the babies grew up and left the nest and I thoroughly cleaned the box. My reward? Bluebirds used my houses for the first time ever that summer!

To receive an application go to the National Wildlife Federation's website at http://www.nwf.org and click on education, then to Backyard Wildlife Habitat Program or call them at 1-800-822-9919. Once you receive your application, fill it out, (a great project to do with children - have them help you identify plants and trees) then send it in your application with a check for $15.00. You can include photos that may be used on their website. You will receive a handsome, personalized certificate from the NWF suitable for framing, recognizing your yard as an official Backyard Wildlife Habitat. Your habitat will be assigned its own unique number and entered into the National Register. Once certified you are eligible to purchase the Backyard Wildlife Habitat sign suitable for posting outside in your habitat. You will also receive the Habitats quarterly newsletter free of charge. If you'd like to visit my site it's # 30614, one of only five listed in Vermont.

Whether you're just beginning, or you've been providing wildlife habitat for years, your efforts are valuable to wildlife and worthy of recognition.

KINDERGARDENING
By Diana Lawrence, Master Gardener volunteer, University of Vermont Extension

Each newly trained student from the University of Vermont Extension Master Gardener Program is required to contribute 40 hours of volunteer time in garden-related activities to his or her community. As a graduate of the program, I can say that this is hardly onerous, since once you've spent the winter studying plants in the course, you can't wait to do something about it.

Although the nature of the volunteering is up to the individual, four criteria must be met: the project must be educational, it must be horticultural in nature, there can be no compensation, and it must in some way strengthen the Master Gardener Program. I chose to do a little "kindergardening." These activities are well-suited for early elementary school teachers to try in the classroom, or for parents to do with their kids at home.

My son's kindergarten teacher graciously allowed me to try my hand at teaching. Although I'd never been at the front of the classroom before, my fears soon dissipated. Children take to plants like ducks to water. You can smell plants, feel them, taste them, play with them, grow them, and read about them. This means that no matter which way a child learns best, there's a plant for the purpose!

We began by studying seeds and photosynthesis, reading books that described germination and the conditions plants need to grow. While the kids painted their individual clay pots (using nature stencils and muffin pans filled with paint), we talked about different kinds of seeds, how they travel, and the flow of food and water. I spoke about dicots and monocots, and we pretended to be roots, sucking up water through straws.

During my second visit, we potted bean and sunflower seeds, read stories about composting and beneficial insects, and colored pages with butterflies, ladybugs, bean plants, and sunflowers that I downloaded from the Internet. That visit was followed by a session on seed art, where we drew pictures of gardens with glue and decorated them with dried peas, sunflower seeds, pinto beans, and birdseed. We discussed the ways plants contribute to our lives, giving us medicine, shade, oxygen, food, paper, fabric, and perfume.

Bulbs were the most fun. We read a book on the parts of a plant and learned what a bulb was, and then talked about how daffodils and tulips grow. We used yellow baking cups, tongue depressors, and green construction paper to make daffodils of our own, then planted paperwhites and amaryllis and watched them grow, day by day. The scent was overpowering, and the children found it fascinating.

Best of all, we dissected onions and garlic bulbs, tasting them and peeling them until the classroom smelled like an Italian restaurant. I had to go home and make spaghetti afterwards.

Several of the children had never been in a garden, so I brought a number of herbs to school for them to smell and taste. We discussed the differentways to use parsley, dill, cilantro, mint, sage, and rosemary, sitting in a circle on the carpet while I passed the plants around and each child touched the leaves, inhaled the fragrance, and took a nibble ("So that's what makes pickles taste so good!" one of the kids exclaimed.). Then we made lavender sachets for Mother's Day out of dried lavender, ribbons, and circles of chintz fabric cut with pinking shears.

Last, we took a trip to a local greenhouse to learn about propagation, different varieties of plants, and the conditions flowers need to germinate and grow. Each child came home with a six-pack of pansies (which my son called "cupcake flowers" because of their square root balls). One boy busied himself tearing all of the flowers off the plants, which gave me the opportunity to talk about the benefits of deadheading. I just never told his mother what he had done!

PLANT A WILDFLOWER PATCH
By Judy Lochbrunner, MG intern, class of 2001 (posted 8/1/01)

As summer ends and fall approaches, it may be time to think about adding a patch of wildflowers to your garden. But what exactly are wildflowers? Fortunately the definition is as broad as the choice of flowers, sites and climates. Wildflowers are flowering plants that grow in a natural uncultivated state or survive in a given area with little care. [1] Your wildflower bed should be prepared in the fall. The planning, time, and work you devote to your future wildflower patch now (or in the next few months) will pay off in exquisite blooms next summer, which receive little routine maintenance. Begin your plans for the wildflower patch by choosing a small patch. Too large of an area may tax your available time (and your energy), prevent proper site preparation and prevent routine maintenance. A smaller site will allow some experimentation.

The first question to ask concerns why you would plant a wildflower patch? According to the May/June 2001 issue of “Rodale Organic Gardening”, many common annuals and perennials used in wildflower mixes attract beneficial insects. By providing a “home” for these beneficial insects, they will be on duty to control “bad guys” in your yard. In other words, the wildflower patch can act as the base for your own “pest patrol”. Wildflower patches can enhance your garden design. They add an element of fun and play to clipped and groomed gardens. They add a color “riot” to contrast with the cool peaceful green of a lawn. In addition, if you have a problem area, one that may be too sunny, dry, shady or wet, wildflowers specifically chosen for their tolerance of one of these “problems” will provide a beautiful solution. A wildflower patch started from seed is a real bargain. Growing from seed provides a tremendous number of plants for only the price of the seeds and your labor. Since conservation of rare, threatened and endangered wildflowers requires that they be propagated from seed or cuttings and not be dug or disturbed in their habitat, many wildflower seeds and seed mixes are available commercially in stores, catalogs and on the internet; so that gardeners can easily diversify the plants in their yard while leaving natural areas untouched.[2] Finally, a wildflower patch invites children, dog-walkers, joggers and neighbors to stop and enjoy! I have not had a problem with any of my wildflowers being picked or disturbed even though the beds are located next to the sidewalk and the street. Wildflowers are a “gift” you give to everyone. They will bring a smile, a memory, and a sense of beauty to whomever sees them.

The second question in planting a wildflower patch is weed control. A “no maintenance” wildflower patch does not exist. If you ignore your wildflower patch, it will not flourish. Yes, I agree that you see wildflowers along the roadside successfully competing with weeds, but the success of those wildflowers comes from the fact that they were planted in properly prepared, weed-free sites. In other words, competition is an area of weed control too often overlooked. Young plants are most susceptible to competition from weeds. Therefore, a properly prepared, weed-free site encourages quick germination of the wildflowers and an early development of the wildflower canopy which will suppress weed growth. Pay close attention to the recommended rate and distribution of wildflower seeds noted on the seed packet. Wildflowers too thickly sown will compete with themselves and encourage dieback. With dieback comes open areas that encourage weeds.[3]

Soil and site preparation is the next question to be answered. Begin by familiarizing yourself with the site. Match the cultural requirements of the wildflowers to the site. ( for example, do not try to grow a moisture-loving wildflower on a dry site.) Soil tests are highly recommended. The soil test provides information on the soil pH and fertility level. Wildflowers usually prefer a soil pH of 5.5 to 7.0. (Check with your local Extension service for information on obtaining a test kit.) The existing vegetation (grass and weeds) must be removed. You can either remove this top layer (sod can be a great addition to your compost pile) or use a nonselective postemergent herbicide containing glyphosate (Roundup) only if you follow the directions on the label. (Read the directions fully and carefully.) If you use the herbicide, those of you in southern climates need to wait at least 10 days and those of us in more northern climates need to wait a few weeks before LIGHTLY tilling the soil. (Deep tilling brings more weeds seeds to the surface.) Amend the soil according to the results of your soil test and don’t forget to add organic matter (rotted manure, compost, chopped leaves, etc).

Seeds and seed mixes are the next question. I have had the best success with seed mixes specifically blended for the area. Stay away from bargain seeds from discount stores. These tend to be generic mixes that contain seeds not suited to your climate and the results will be annuals that won’t re-seed, perennials that are not hardy enough to survive the winter in cold climates or perennials that are not drought-resistant to survive the heat in warmer climates. Spend the extra money for good quality mixes blended for your area from seed companies you already know and trust. Smooth out the soil with a rake and follow the directions on the seed packets for sowing. Finish by lightly covering the seed with packaged potting soil and ensuring that the seeds are in contact with the soil. I recommend the “baby-step” method. Simply take “baby-steps” covering the entire wildflower patch. This is one time you can have your children walk all over the flower garden! Be sure that the wildflower patch receives enough moisture for the first 4-6 weeks. Water if there is insufficient rain. Gardeners in zone 7-11 will plant the wildflower seed in the autumn months from September into December to take advantage of cooler temperatures and wetter conditions. Those of us in zones 1-6 must wait until early spring to sow our seed; but we can relax during the cold winter months knowing that the patch is ready for spring.

Lastly is the question of maintenance. Wildflowers require low or little maitenance once they are established. Supplemental watering is not required and fertilizing is usually not necessary unless the plants exhibit signs of nutrient deficiencies. Periodic weeding, on the other hand, is necessary. Removing weeds by hand when they are young will prevent any weed “infestation” and is the preferred method of control in an established wildflower patch.[4] The final maintenance requirement is an annual mowing. All wildflower patches require an end of season mowing. Mowing has three objectives: first to prevent the establishment pines and hardwood trees in many parts of the country; second to disperse the wildflower seeds for re-seeding. (Be careful to not remove seed heads from beds during your autumn clean up. If your are trimming with hand tools, cut off the seed heads from the stalks to place in the wildflower patch and place the stalks in your compost pile.) thirdly, mowing improves the appearance of your bed by removing dead plant material and making a neater appearance during the winter months.[5]

One final note, the mix of flowers in your patch will change over time and seasonal growing conditions. The element of “surprise” is one of the most captivating characteristics of the wildflower patch. Every year brings a new surprise. Established wildflower patches can be “rejuvenated” by adding a fresh seed mix package at the appropriate planting time and being careful not to overly disturb the soil. Enjoy!

[1] Clemson Extension, Home and Garden Information Center, HGIC 1157 “Wildflowers”, http://hgic.clemson.edu
[2] Denny Schrock, Department of Horticulture, University of Missouri-Columbia, Agricultural publication G6660 “Wildflowers in the Home Landscape”, http://muextension.missouri.edu
[3] Lena Gallitano, W.A. Skroch, D. A Bailey, North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service, Leaflet No:645 “Weed Management for Wildflowers”, http://www.ces.ncsu.edu
[4] Lena Gallitano, W.A. Skroch, D. A Bailey, North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service, Leaflet No:645 “Weed Management for Wildflowers”, http://www.ces.ncsu.edu
[5] Lena Gallitano, W.A. Skroch, D. A Bailey, North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service, Leaflet No:645 “Weed Management for Wildflowers”, http://www.ces.ncsu.edu
Additional references:
*William Cullima,The New England Wild Flower Society Guide to Growing and Propagating Wildflowers of the United States and Canada,Houghton Mifflin Company, 2000
*Wildseed Farms 2001 Wildflower Reference Guide & Seed Catalog, www.wildseedfarms.com

SUSTAINABLE LANDSCAPE DESIGN -PART 5
By Jennifer Johnson (posted 7/2/01)

English cottage gardens fronting white picket fences.Restored prairies that invite a slow stroll in the warm sun.This is my view of landscape design.So I can appreciate the irony of considering what I think of first in a design – looking good – in the final phase of a plan. But, building sustainability into the landscape by considering functionality, maintenance, environmental soundness, and cost-effectiveness (in that order) before aesthetics helps the design to thrive as it matures.Incorporating the elements of design while placing the plants in the landscape in the five steps I reviewed last month (trees, key plants, focal points/accents, plant groupings and mass plantings) will help the healthy landscape look attractive, too.

To begin, think of visual qualities like height and width, texture and color. Combine these visual, or primary elements of design, with the principles of design like balance, proportion, sequence, variety, and scale.Balance means an informal landscape will have a relatively similar weight (through size, quantity, texture and color) within each bed and in the overall design. The finer the plant’s texture, like grass, the more you’ll need.Select the size of each plant in proportion to the size of the bed and other plants using the “rule of 3’s”.That is, locate focal points in the bed 1/3 of the way between two points. A key plant should be 2/3 the height of the hard surface it’s anchoring to the ground. If you have three heights of plants in a bed, think in terms of equal bed space when deciding how much room to allow.Divide the space into thirds and fill 1/3 with tall plants, 1/3 with medium and 1/3 with short plants. Place the plants in a sequence that leads the eye through the bed, just as you placed the beds to invite the eye through the landscape.Add accents, which can change with the season, to break up the sequence and to lead eye. But don’t include so many they compete. Mix perennials with shrubs or woody plants to give a sense of permanence and winter interest. Use enough variety to create interest, but not busyness. Replicating mass plantings in different areas of the landscape ties the landscape together visually.Select plants in scale to the size of the bed, so they don’t overgrow space or crowd plants.

Color is tricky since plants don’t always bloom as described. My favorite tip is “when selecting colors, choose what you like and copy it.” Consider the size and location of the bed and the distance from which you’ll be viewing it. Closer beds can be busier. If it’s across the yard, use bigger clumps of plants or they’ll get lost. Warm colors(yellow, orange gold, red) make a large yard more intimate and cool colors (blue, purple, deep pink) make a small yard seem bigger.Warm colors pop out and are a good focal point. A monochromatic color scheme is easiest. White and green are neutral colors and useful for fillers, creating transitions, separating other colors, and creating unity throughout the bed.White looks neat at sun down.

After identifying the visual characteristics for each plant space, Then, consider the secondary elements of design, or the characteristics the plants need to grow, like soil and light conditions, hardiness, moisture, disease and insect resistance.Finally, select specific plants based on the characteristics identified. Many books present this information.Another great resource is the “SULIS Sustainable Urban Landscape Information Series” at http://www.sustland.umn.edu, which includes loads of detailed information and links to a searchable database. Or go directly to the database at http://www.sustland.umn.edu/plant/index.html. Search the database by site requirements for a list of appropriate plants.The results may lead you to broaden your search or tweak your design.

I’m now a reformed random gardener, if only because I’ve found a new method to transform my landscape. With the arrival of winter nursery catalogues, summer transplants and fall clearance rescues, each plant has the right spot to thrive beautifully. And, even if I relocate I can take the design with me, modify it for my new space and tame the weed-filled beds I inevitably inherit back into an organized design.

SUSTAINABLE LANDSCAPE DESIGN -PART 4
By Jennifer Johnson (posted 7/5/01)

I like lists. Lists that flow down the steps to success like water spilling over the Hinke’s waterfall during the garden tour. I thought I would conclude this series with simple instructions for transforming concept lines into a fantasy landscape. But, this class proved design is a combination of art and science that defies a simple outline to perfection. Yet, there are five steps to drawing plants into a design which satisfies my need for order. The elements of design applied throughout the process fuel my creative fire while identifying several plant options for each space appeals to the random gardener in me. Following are five steps to placing plants in the landscape and bringing the concept lines to earth.

Starting with the landscape plan, drawn to scale, with concept lines outlining flowing beds and features identified by function, the first step is to draw in the large trees. Trees canopy, frame and balance the home, save on energy costs, and start to give form on the ground to the concept lines drawn on paper so don’t skimp! The average city lot needs a minimum of four trees; at least one in front, in back and on each side. Draw a circle ¾ the mature size of a deciduous tree with the trunk (center of the circle) along the concept line and a circle the mature size of an evergreen with the branches (diameter of the circle) along the concept line.

Then, draw in key plants, which soften hard features like fences and decks and tie vertical building corners to the ground integrating them into the landscape. Draw a circle the mature size of a plant of any type, like shrubs, vines or trees depending on the size of the feature. The key plants should not be identical but carry equal weight – one flowering shrub on one side and three non-flowering shrubs on another for example. Include a minimum space of eight to twelve inches from the foundation to create an air pocket that increases energy efficiency and place them away from the drip line to reduce maintenance.

The third step is to include focal points and accent plants, like hard features and specimen plants, which draw the eye to areas you want to emphasize, like an entrance. They are drawn with a circle the diameter of the mature or full size and provide specific seasonal interests or color through flowers, fruit or leaves.

Then, include plants groupings, which have an odd number of the same plant closely placed in interlocking clusters so the eye doesn’t focus on a single plant yet can pick out individual mature plants. Draw a combination of circles which represent plants that will occupy an area, like a shrub border between properties or a perennial bed.

The fifth step is to draw in Mass Plantings, where many plants of the same species (often shrubs and groundcovers) are spaced closely together so you don’t see the individual plants. Draw a cluster of circles the mature size of the plant grouping. Mass plantings tie the landscape together visually, fill in empty spaces, set off the specimen plants, and most importantly, serve as the fudge factor. Since they are viewed as one lump, the actual number of plants can be changed. So, if your measurements are wrong or a hill affects the number of plants used, you can adjust this space without affecting the design.

These are the five steps to a Draft Design, which will become a completed landscape plan as specific plants and hard goods are selected for each space. In the next article of this series, I’ll share the elements of design that help locate the plant spaces and identify the short list of specific plants that will create a unified, functional fantasy design that ages beautifully.

MASTER GARDENERS: SPROUTING UP ALL OVER VERMONT
By Sarah Koehl (posted 6/11/01)

Keep your eyes and ears open! Two-hundred twenty-one gardeners-in-training were released, like a swarm of beneficial insects, on the state of Vermont this past month.

It all started last fall. I was reading Kitchen Gardener magazine, and came across an article mentioning so-and-so, who is a “Master Gardener in the state of Washington”. I had heard that phrase Master Gardener before, and began to wonder what exactly it meant. How do you become a Master Gardener? Who declares you a master? Do you have to have years of gardening life experience? Is it something I could do, with my apartment living, and limited gardening space?

A quick search on the Internet brought me to the Vermont Master Gardener Program. I inquired about the class, and ended up sending in my fees for the Basic Course, which started early in the year when snows were still blanketing the soil. Since February, I have been reading massive amounts of information on all sorts of subjects from soil science to pruning, and attending class for two and a half hours every Tuesday night. Our final session was May 15^th.

The Master Gardener program is an arm of the Cooperative Extension system. There are Extension offices all over the country, connecting local governments and people to land grant universities and the Department of Agriculture. Here in our state it is associated with the University of Vermont, while in New York it would be Cornell, and in other states, other universities.

The Extension system was designed through the Smith Lever Act in 1914 to provide the public with information from these research centers and assist with agriculture. As it became increasingly necessary to provide this service to numerous homeowners, rather than one or two farmers in a given area, the volunteer Master Gardener program was created to lighten the load on Extension agents. Begun in Seattle, Washington in the 1970s, the program now exists in all fifty states, plus the District of Columbia and four Canadian provinces. Seattle, still in the forefront, even has a Master Composting program.

In Vermont there are over 650 currently active Master Gardeners, and my class consisted of 221 new enthusiasts. The thirteen week course was presented simultaneously all over the state: I went to the Vermont Interactive Television site in Waterbury, sat at a table with live microphones on it, and watched the lecturer in Burlington, or Brattleboro, or wherever he or she was that day. The entomologist lectured from our site, so we were able to see him in person. We could use our microphones to ask questions, which would then be broadcast to the rest of the sites. The lecturers were experts from UVM and the state Department of Agriculture. They covered topics like botany, propagation, disease control, landscaping, turf management, composting, fruits, vegetables, perennials, and everything in between. We had quite a bit of reading to do each week, and almost every lecture started with the phrase “I usually cover this much information in a whole semester…” Needless to say, it was a jam-packed course.

Now that I’ve completed this Basic Course and passed my final, I will be required to put in forty hours of horticulture-related community service before January 2002 to fully claim the title Master Gardener. After that, to remain an active member, and be eligible to attend advanced courses, I must do twenty volunteer hours a year, and pay $10 in dues. Nancy Hulett, the state Program Coordinator, says she expects about seventy percent of this year’s students to remain active through next year. She is in the process ofrecording how many stay on longer than that, but doesn’t currently have figures. The program is working hard at developing regional chapters, to keep people connected after they finish the training. There is also an extensive web site (some of which is accessible to the general public). She believes communication is key in getting people involved.

One of the most important aspects of the Master Gardener program is the volunteer hours. In order to qualify towards the required number of hours, the time must meet the following criteria: time must be volunteered, with no payment for services; it must educate people about horticultural topics; and it has to promote the Master Gardeners. After those stipulations are met, the field is wide open.

Many people work with 4-H clubs, or do programs with schools or public libraries. Others have taken on specific community projects. For example, the Waterbury Rotary Club, which maintains Rust Parker Park in Waterbury, is recruiting Master Gardeners to help with the plantings and maintenance. This alone doesn’t qualify, so in order to meet the educational requirement, plants in the park will be identified and labeled, as is done in botanical gardens.

A Master Gardener can’t just come over and landscape your lawn, but if you have questions on landscaping—or vegetable gardening, or pest control, or houseplants—you can call the Helpline at 800-639-2230. The Helpline is staffed by Master Gardener volunteers, and supported by UVM Extension resources.

Central Vermont Master Gardeners

Brenda Furber went through the Basic Course last year, and spent this year as a site coordinator for the Randolph class. She got involved, she says, because she was interested in gardening, but didn’t know how. “We built our new house, and I wanted a garden, and I didn’t know what to do!” She found out about the program through contacts at UVM, and has become an avid participant. Her favorite part, she says, is working with the 4-H Cloverleafs. These are the younger kids involved in 4-H (also a Cooperative Extension program).

Brenda attended to the big 4-H shindig at Berlin Elementary School on May 16^th to assist with some of the workshops there, and will follow up by visiting kids’ gardens all summer. She and other Master Gardeners will visit 4-Hers’ homes to provide assistance and encouragement to these budding horticulturists. Kids can show off their successes, and ask about the plants that didn’t thrive.

Waterbury resident Marge Gulyas is another very active member. “I put in over 100 hours last year!” she tells me. She’s been a Master Gardener for about two years and is involved with many different projects. Being a tree and shrub enthusiast, one of her favorites is Stewardship of the Urban Landscape (SOUL). She attended a forty-hour course last spring and learned not only about actual planting of trees and the like in urban areas, but also grant writing, and how to use the media to your advantage. The SOUL class is offered every year, alternating sites between Burlington and Rutland, in order to reach people across the state.

Marge is also heavily involved other activities like the Burlington flower show and “A River Runs Through It”, the Waterbury/Duxbury garden club. She and Brenda both attend regular meetings of the Central Vermont Master Gardeners.

Eric Proudfoot is another Central Vermont chapter member. He says the program has helped him make some great friends, swap some great plants, and learn a whole lot about gardening. His job with the SRS Emergency Services Program has taught him that “educating the youth of the state is more important then ever.” Kids and teens are so at risk these days, and “one of the solutions is to get them connected to the planet.” He says the best way Master Gardeners can do this is working with the 4-H program.

4-H Event

The 4-H event on May 16^th at the Berlin Elementary School was attended by many area youth, and I got a chance to speak to a few of them. I attended one of Brenda Furber’s workshops, where she helped the Cloverleafs plant beans and lettuce. They were then told how to properly water and care for their new plantings, to assure success. Dillon Austin, one of Brenda’s participants, says he came to the event because “I want to plant!” He says he helps his mom with her garden but is excited about having his own plants. When asked if he would consume his produce, he told me he’d eat the beans, but isn’t too fond of lettuce.

Joey Nailor is a “sort of” experienced gardener, and also likes to garden with Mom. He says he learned “how to plant seeds, and what type of bugs should be [in the garden] and what shouldn’t.” Joey eats some of what he cultivates, and is interested in learning how to grow prize winning produce in the future.

Jane Tucker, a Putnamville resident whose greenhouse provided the tomato plants all the kids got to take home, says she and her kids are involved because “It’s nice to see them finally be able to grow their own [food].” She adds, “We grow organically, and are trying to teach the next generation to carry on. From a very early age they could go yank a carrot out of the ground, rub the dirt off, and eat it, and I never worried about what they were getting.”

Her sons, Robert and Daniel, grow “monster” sunflowers, along with their vegetables, all of which they like to enter in produce competitions. Daniel, whose first real attempt at gardening was last year, was disappointed in the rotten summer we had. Robert has been involved for the past four years, and thinks gardening is really fun. He attended a worm composting workshop, where he learned, among other things, that worms really like coffee grounds.

Everyone, from beginner gardeners to Master Gardeners, seems to be planning and anticipating the coming summer. Now that the weather has warmed up, and all that snow is a distant memory, we can start dreaming about bountiful harvests. And if you need guidance and advice, just call on one of those freshly harvested Master Gardeners!

ISLAND POND GARDEN BLOOMS ON WEB (Burlington Free Press 5/27/01)
Erica Jacobson, Free Press Staff Writer (posted 5/30/01)

Forget Mary, Mary quite contrary; How does Jennifer Hanlon's garden grow? "Well, right now there's just the tulips," Hanlon said, "and the daffodils have just bloomed." Anyone with Internet access could have told you the same thing. Every 15 minutes during the day, a Web camera behind Hanlon's house takes a photo of her Northeast Kingdom garden and posts it to www.islandpond.com/webcam.htm.
Hanlon never expected her back yard to go global. A friend hooked up the camera in February on a whim. Back then, snowmobilers loved to check the site because they could gauge the quality of area trails by the amount of snow piled on Hanlon's picnic table. As she waited for winter to end, Hanlon installed a few pink flamingos in the snow. They flew away just in time for a few spinning plastic flowers to sprout. Now that actual plants are blooming, she's moved most of the kitsch aside to make way for the view of her evolving flower garden. "This is all kind of a work in progress," Hanlon said. "It's like a live flower show; every day it just changes."
Under the nickname "Flora," Hanlon also runs several gardening discussion groups where she posts digital photos of everything from trillium to moose prints found in and around her garden. She shunned planting vegetables in favor of more colorful flowers, but she's had little feedback. "There's not many people who reply," she said. "The ones who do are from out of state, and they want to see what's going on in Vermont."
Hanlon doesn't have the only grow show around, though. Last year, the trade newspaper Iowa Farmer Today Online put a corn cam into a field. She does, however, have a jump on this year's growing season, even at her Zone 3 home. While yellow flowers can be seen in Hanlon's backyard, heavy rains have prevented the Iowa farmer from planting his field. Still, she's not so sure she wants her site to be subjected to the same traffic as the corn cam's average 20,000 daily viewers. "Just like in your garden, a few zucchini are a good thing," Hanlon said. "Too many zucchini are not such a good thing."
Still, the stay-at-home mom expects a little garden cam excitement featuring her 2 1/2 -year-old daughter, the family's Australian shepherd and whatever wildlife happens to wander through. She's already had to make an unexpected revision to the site after a less-than-flattering shot of her working in the garden almost spent the entire night on the site. "I just uploaded darkness instead," Hanlon said. "It was kind of funny. I just laughed about it."

THE FRENCH FLOWERS OF CANADA!
Debra Douse MG 2001 (posted 4/30/01)

Feel like you've done it all in Vermont, garden-wise? Seen every perennial and shrub? Then consider touring the gardens of Quebec. It's just over the border, great for a day trip or even a long weekend. And need I say it's great value for the money due to the exchange rate. Before you dismiss the idea as unproductive, consider that many areas of Quebec are zone 4 or less, so you'll get lots of new ideas for plants suitable for our regions here in Vermont. Montreal is a bi-lingual city in the heart of Quebec, which has the largest French speaking population in North America, but flowers have a language all their own.
If you only have one day, the Montreal Botanical Garden is a must. Though this cosmopolitan island has hundreds of small parks and gardens, this is the jewel in the city's crown. Located on Sherbrook St. East, in the shadow of the Olympic Stadium, it shines brightly as an inspiration to gardeners and non-gardeners alike.
This city oasis consists of 30 gardens, including a beautiful Chinese Pavillion with fine examples of bonzai and penjing; medicinal and herbal gardens; and a lovely Japanese garden-always a favorite spot for wedding photographs. At the far end of the garden, 10 exhibition greenhouses are the starting ground for seedlings raised to fill the myriads of medians and outdoor spaces all over the city. Montreal is a riot of color from spring through fall: imagine pink & green scrambling over white on the face of blue and yellow! (All no doubt in retaliation for the gray winters!)
June sees hundreds of roses at their best, and the water garden is fabulous all summer long, showcasing iris, peonies and daylilies, and is a favorite with kids who love interacting with the waterfowl inhabiting this area. If all the walking is too much for you, there's a free hop on/hop off tram available. There truly is something for everyone here. Check their website for more information, including their Calendar of Blooms!: ville.montreal.qc.ca/jardin.
Just north of Montreal, the city of Laval, as the horticultural capital of Quebec, produces 35% of the hothouse flowers in Quebec, in 170 greenhouses. The geographic region is divided into 3 areas: the "route of flowers", the "green route" and the "avenue of produce". Quebec tourist information centers have brochures describing these areas and the farms and greenhouses open to visitors, of which there are over 240. Plan to spend some time exploring!
East of Montreal, near Drummondville, a very different experience awaits you at Jardins Lumieres de L'Avenier (Lighted gardens of Avenir). This beautiful site on the banks of the St. Francis river showcases sculptures in a garden setting which come to life with specialized lighting. You'll come away with a whole new perspective on gardening for night enjoyment. Info at 877-394-3350.
Last, but certainly not least, there's Domaine Cataraqui, the only historical garden in the Quebec City area. It is a lovely Victorian-era garden created over the past 150 years, in a peaceful setting on the St. Lawrence river. Be sure to visit the lovely villa while you are there. Info: 418-681-3010.
This is just a small sampling of the garden delights that await you just north of the border. So pack your camera and notebook and venture into a whole new garden world. You'll find inspiration for your own garden, and rub elbows with other gardeners who are happy to share their knowledge with you, in any language!

A PASSION FOR PEONIES (submitted to the Bennington Banner)
Linda McLenithan, Master Gardener Volunteer, UVM Extension (posted 4/30/01)

After attending a recent lecture and slideshow on peonies by Bill Countryman of Countryman Peony Farm in Northfield, VT sponsored by the Arlington Garden Club, I'm convinced I don't have nearly enough of these luscious flowers in my garden. These are the plants grandmothers had in their cottage gardens and there is something old-fashioned looking about them. There are well over a thousand varieties to choose from, enough to satisfy anyone s desire for spectacular blooms in the garden. They range in color from the purest white, all shades of pink, to a deep red, almost purple. They come in single, semi-double, double, anemone, Japanese and Itoh Hybrid varieties.
In 1988 Donald Hollingsworth introduced the first yellow peony named Garden Treasure. The Garden Treasure is a strong yellow color not usually found in herbaceous peonies. By crossing a yellow tree peony with an herbaceous variety, Hollingsworth produced a plant with large yellow flowers. Garden Treasure is perfectly hardy in Vermont due to its dying to the ground (herbaceous) in the fall which protects it from harsh winter weather. Tree and herbaceous crosses are called Itoh hybrids to honor the Japanese breeder, Toichi Itoh, who in the late 1940's was the first to succeed in making the cross. Few breeders have been able to do this. As a result, only a few Itoh hybrids have been developed (read expensive!).
Myron Bigger, another peony grower, has been instrumental in picking out superior flowering peonies with a strong stem. If you want a strong-stemmed variety that doesn t need to be staked, look for the Bigger name. If your peonies are of the variety that are weak stemmed, especially noticeable after a heavy rain, stake them using the round support rings or even tomato cages.
Peonies prefer a well-drained soil with a pH of 6.0 to 7.0. They don't do well in poorly drained soil. Plants will do best in full sunlight, but will stand a moderate amount of shade. Peonies can be planted any time in the fall before the ground freezes. Peonies planted in spring, unless pot grown, sometimes fail because the root development does not keep pace with the growth. Dig a big enough hole to accommodate the root system. In Vermont, plant with the eyes 2 inches below the soil surface with eyes facing upwards. Mulch the first winter to prevent frost heave, after the first year no mulch is necessary.
Peonies are rarely bothered by insects and although their bloom time is usually over by June-July, the foliage remains attractive throughout the growing season. The ants that you see on peonies are attracted to the sweet, sticky substance that peonies secrete.
Hmm, no mulching (after first year), no fertilization necessary, no insects, doesn t need dividing unless you want more plants, spectacular flowers, what more could you want from these workhorses of the spring/summer garden?
In the single variety try the strong stemmed Topeka Garnet (red), Japanese, the Gold Standard (white), Topeka Statue, (pale pink to white). In the semi-double try the Miss America, a spectacular white two- time gold medal winner. For a double try Mrs. James Kelway, considered by some as the best white double available.
So whether you are just starting your garden or are looking for additional flowering plants, consider adding peonies to your landscape for low-maintenance beauty.

GARDENING TIPS
From Nancy Willard, Southeast Region Master Gardener (posted 2/13/01)

• Do you have a houseplant that needs an alkaline soil? Push a stick of blackboard chalk into the soil by the plant. (Gleaned from a horticulturist on "Rebecca's Garden," the Sunday morning television program)
• Pull dry, undiseased leaves from daylilies, soak them in water to make them pliable, and use them to tie other plants to stakes. The leaves do not damage tender stems and do not look out of place in the garden. (From "Gardening How-To.")
• Need to dry herbs or leafy tops of vegetables? Place in a pillow case, take outside, and swing in a circle to get rid of water. Then hang on a clothesline to dry. Fluff contents several times so they don't plump. In several days they should be dry enough to freeze.

SUSTAINABLE LANDSCAPE DESIGN -Part 3 (Parts 1&2 below)
Jennifer Johnson MG (posted 2/22/01)

I've admired magazine photographs of homes framed by shrubs and trees and set among prolific perennial flowerbeds flowing through the property. In real life, however, I see homes sticking up like stray corn stalks in a bean field with shrubs randomly popping up like molehills. Ever wonder how to blend your home into its environment and create flowerbeds that don't look, well, just stuck somewhere in the middle of the yard? Diana Alfuth's (Horticulture Educator, University of Wisconsin Extension, Pierce, Polk, and St. Croix Counties) Landscape Design class identified the key to creating a unified design. Here's how:
List all of the functions, or spaces, the landscape needs to provide based on the information gained during the Interview; an extensive questioning of the users, maintainers, and owners of the site, and the Site Analysis; a combination of draft sketches, plans, and notes that point out the positive and negative characteristics of the site. Functions could include a variety of items like play space for children, foundation plantings, firewood storage, privacy screens, and enhanced family room views.
The list and the Base Plan, which is a scale drawing from a bird's eye view of everything that won't change, will be used in the next step - drawing Bubble Diagrams. (I discussed the Interview, Site Analysis, and Base Plan extensively in article 2 of the Sustainable Landscape Design series.) Drawn on the Base Plan, Bubble Diagrams are simple egg shapes that define and locate spaces on the landscape by function. For example, a bubble alongside the home could indicate space for foot traffic to the backyard, and one near the patio, a privacy screen. The spaces they identify are specific, but not the "bubble" itself. Just draw and label the bubbles where the spaces may be located. Try different combinations on separate copies of the Base Plan to force thinking in different ways, creating unique combinations, and identify preferences. The purpose at this stage is to identify, not define spaces. So the location, not the shape, is important. The Bubble Diagram allows you to creatively explore incorporating all of the desired functions of the landscape into the design. Ten to 15 Bubble Diagrams should clearly identify preferred locations.
The next step is to modify the bubbles to create a Draft Design, where features have a specific form and function. First, draw in the hard features like a stoop, deck, driveway, and walkway if they are not included in the Base Plan. Think functionality: size the stoop for room to open the door without falling off the step, locate the driveway and walkway to allow easy access from the car to the walk, and proportion the deck to allow room for furniture and a walkway. Then, draw in the largest feature or space, which is usually the turf. The shape of this space defines the shape of the smaller ones. This is where I balked. Start with grass to design flowerbeds? I had always thought of the grass as what was left over after one had created the gardens. But, on reflection, this makes sense. For visual and functional effectiveness, a landscape needs a balance between fine and heavy textures. Grass is the finest texture so there must be proportionately more. If the largest space looks good, the rest will, too.
Concept Lines, the lines on paper and the borders between features, define the spaces and identify where to locate items for the professional flowing appearance I've admired. They can be imaginary, like where shade meets sun; real, like the border between the foundation plantings and turf; or within an area, like a grouping of shrubs next to annuals. The key to attractive, natural Concept Lines is to create a swoosh effect: big, bold, smoothly sweeping curves. Lazy, meandering lines, which aren't quite straight but don't have a defined curve, simply look unplanned. Think straight lines or bold curves and nothing in between. French curves and landscape templates, found at art and office supply stores, help create these smooth curves.
Start by reshaping the largest feature into swooshing Concept Lines, which also shapes at least one side of the abutting smaller spaces. Then, define the other features you've included in the Bubble Diagram. I found I needed to keep massaging the bubbles to make the elements work together.
The Concept Lines make the difference between design and decoration since they determine where certain items will be located. For established landscapes, work concept lines into established features like trees. (The eye will look past mature tree trunks. Deciduous tree trunks and evergreen branches fall along the Concept Lines.) Eschew the traditional ring of shrubs around the foundation and create bold curves around the building corners to soften the vertical lines and lead the eye through the landscape. Curve the Concept Lines to include the sharp corners of a deck or patio and integrate it into the landscape. Make the edges of an island garden bed replicate nearby Concept Lines so that they become part of the design. The features of the landscape actually become the Concept Lines.
Translated from paper to the grounds, the flowing, curving shape of the features provides the natural style I've admired. In the next, and last, article of this series, I'll discuss garden bed design and actual plant selection to make the design come to life.

SUSTAINABLE LANDSCAPE DESIGN -Part 2 (Part 1 below)
Jennifer Johnson MG (posted 2/13/01)

I've tried to create beautiful landscapes. After ogling photographs in magazines like Fine Gardening and reading books with titles including the words 'garden design,' I knew it could be done. I also knew that I should create the design on paper first. But I'd get stuck somewhere between my fantasy of flowers and a stack of graph paper, pencils, and a big pink eraser. Diana Alfuth's Landscape Design class closed that gap for me the second week. First she taught the five interrelated principles needed to create a design that looks good new and matures into beauty. I wrote about these principles in the last newsletter issue. Then, we learned the step-by-step process that really helped me identify what needs to be done to incorporate these principles, put pencil to paper, and create a completed landscape design.
The first step is to conduct a Site Survey, which is a fancy way of saying you need to learn any and everything about the property by viewing the site and asking a lot of questions. Really studying the area helps you identify what works and what doesn't. Look for signs of problems like erosion, standing water, weedy edging, bad views, wear spots in the lawn, and poor plant growth to identify what's needed to make it more sustainable using the five principles: functional, maintainable, environmentally sound, cost effective and visually pleasing.
A home design can be as simple as a self-evaluation of the landscape. For public and commercial properties, include interviews with public officials, users, engineers, and maintenance personnel, too. Ask questions about the types of buildings, structures, functions (how will the space be used?), topographic features (any large slopes? water features?), soil (compacted? acidic?), light conditions (full shade? sunny?), utilities, service areas (need a dog kennel? wood storage?), plant preferences and design features to include (perennial garden? prairie restoration?). As you can see from this partial list, there's a wide variety of information you can use. I'll include a source for interview questions at the end of this series.
The information from the Site Survey is then incorporated into a Site Analysis, which combines draft sketches, plans, and notes to point out the important site characteristics, both positive features and problem areas, that impact the landscape. The key to minimizing the impact of problem areas is to identify and work with them. For example, a struggling plant may be babied with extra inputs like fertilizers, labor, and water, only to be lost and replaced anyway. If the Site Analysis had identified the area as having poor drainage, then a plant that enjoys 'wet feet' could have been chosen and thrived in the location.
The beauty of the information-gathering phase is that it is the beginning of nailing down a design. the information might seem unrelated at first, but it's critical to incorporating sustainability into the landscape. For example, if I determine I want a certain part of the landscape to block an unsightly view and it happens to have acidic soil and mostly shade, I have already narrowed down the design elements that will work. My 'fantasy of flowers' is starting to find space on my graph paper.
With a completed Site Analysis, it's time to really put pencil to paper and draw a Base Plan, which is a bird's eye view of everything that won't change, like buildings, driveways, sidewalks, trees, and plants. It dictates the accuracy and sustainability of the completed design, since what is on paper translates to the grounds. If the Base Plan is not to scale, your whole design will be off when you start digging, rearranging, and planting. Wouldn't it be a shame to install that beautiful garden bed on your neighbor's property? Or to run out of room with half a dozen shrubs left? It is usually drawn on graph paper with a scale of 1/8 inch equal to one foot. You'll find those little blue boxes on the graph paper conveniently 1/8 of an inch square. A ruler, compass, a landscape template with curves and circles (found at art and office supply stores), pencil, and eraser are helpful supplies.
You can draw the features using the triangulation method, which measures the distance to an object from two different directions for accuracy. Start by measuring the house (or building) all the way around. Draw that into the middle of a sheet of paper. Then choose another permanent feature you wish to include, for example a tree on the East side of the house. Measure from the Northeast corner of the house to the tree. Translate that distance to the paper and draw a line with a ruler, or arc with a compass. Then measure from the Southeast corner of the house to the same tree. Again, translate that distance to your paper and draw another line or arc. Where the two lines or arcs intersect is where the tree should be located. Create a circle with the diameter representing the mature size of the tree around the point of intersection. Continue until all of the permanent features have been drawn. the property line should be the last thing to draw. Simply measure from different spots on the walls of the house to the property line. Do as many of these measurements as you can and then 'connect the dots' to identify the property line on paper.
When the Base Plan is finished, make a bunch of copies because this is where is really gets fun. Next, I'll share how we used all of this information to draft a complete landscape design on our Base Plan.

SUSTAINABLE LANDSCAPE DESIGN -Part 1
Jennifer Johnson MG

Moving frequently over the last ten years, I've inherited overgrown perennial beds breeding plant pathology and my discontent. I've tamed the weed-filled perennial beds back into an organized design by plugging the newly divided plants wherever I found space. Then we'd move again and I wouldn't have to live with the mistakes that grew with time. I knew I should create a master landscape design and then complete each bed as energy and money allow. But where do you start? And who has time to plan? I was too busy gardening! After taking Diana Alfuth's intensive landscape design class, I've reformed. Offered to Master Gardeners and Master Gardeners-in-Training, she taught a method of design called Sustainable Landscape Design which is suitable for public design projects which we as Master Gardeners may become involved such as parks, nursing homes and fairgrounds as well as residential home landscapes. Sustainable Landscape Design basically is an informal style incorporating five interrelated principles with the goal of a design that looks good new and matures into beauty while reducing the need for maintenance. Sustainability is built into the design throughout the process. A Sustainable Landscape Design must be functional, maintainable, environmentally sound, cost effective and visually pleasing - in that order. Most folks begin by focusing on cost and aesthetics, if they plan the landscape at all. Yet, considering the first three issues, helps to create a design fulfilling the final two. Functional refers to any purpose of the landscape besides aesthetics. Will the space be used to play ball? Place the outdoor furniture? Meditate? Store firewood? The function varies tremendously with the users and type of site. Maintainable means reducing but not eliminating the need for maintenance. A maintenance level appropriate for the time and expertise of the caretakers and the type of equipment available should be considered. This is particularly important in public spaces where the consistency and quality of care is uncertain. Sizing paths to accommodate lawnmower and snow removal equipment, placing signs within a garden bed to eliminate trimming and mulching to reduce weeds are all examples of easing maintenance in the Landscape. Environmentally sound decisions require plant selection based on disease resistance and site conditions, like light, soil and water. Stressed plants are susceptible to disease and insects and may require pesticides, fertilizers and water. Minimizing the need for these inputs saves labor, money and stress to the environment while helping to preserve plant health and beauty. Once the function, maintainability and environmental soundness of a design have been considered, the issues of cost-effectiveness and aesthetics are addressed. A cost-effective landscape incorporates the other factors but does not dictate them. It is relative to the owner's needs during design and installation as well as when the plants mature. A visually pleasing landscape incorporates elements of good design that look good when planted and continue to look good over time. This is much more easily accomplished when all of the elements of a sustainable landscape design are considered. One doesn't need to be an artist or have a design background to make a wonderful design. Next month, I'll review the step-by-step process we learned to include these elements in creating a draft design.

VERMONT NATURE Lichens: Messengers From the Plant World
Linda Garrett, Vermont Institute of Natural Science

Now that the leaves are falling and the branches are becoming bare, trees are flaunting their trunks. Colorful leaves, arching
branches, reaching roots: all are often admired, but rarely the mundane tree trunk. Except, perhaps, at this time of year, when they sport a green,
multi-hued, richly textured cloak of lichens. Lichens (pronounced "lye-kins") are found not only on tree trunks, but also on bare rocks, fence posts, exterior barn walls, and other barren surfaces. Ceaseless winds, extreme cold, feet of snow and ice--lichens can withstand the most severe conditions. Indeed, lichens are pioneer plants, somehow eking out a living on seemingly uninhabitable places and other micro-habitats, far before any other plant is able to establish itself there. How do lichens do it? Probably the most important secret to the remarkable success of lichens is their unique structure. In fact, lichens are comprised of not one, but two plants--a fungus and an alga- supporting each other in a mutually beneficial, or "symbiotic," manner. The fungus provides physical support, moisture, and minerals for the lichen. But, without chlorophyll, the fungus is unable to manufacture its own food and, so, on a bare rock, would wither and die without its partner, alga. For its part, the alga, thanks to an abundant supply of chlorophyll, easily makes food for both itself and the fungus. Alga normally grows on water surfaces; without its fungus partner, it would be unable to survive in the harsh, dry environments where lichens thrive. Botanists classify lichens, of which there are about 10,000 species, intothree categories. "Crustose" lichens cling to the rock or other surface, almost like a crust. "Foliose" lichens are leafier and reach up slightly. Finally, "fruticose" lichens are more three-dimensional, with stalks and branches. In this area, three of our most common lichens- "reindeer moss," "British soldiers," and "pixie cups"--are examples of the fruticose lichen type. To an ecologist, one of the most extraordinary qualities of lichens is their ability to detect air pollution. Indeed, lichens are often considered reliable air quality indicators. Unlike other plants, which absorb water and nutrients through their soil bound roots, lichens absorb water directly from the rain or dew. Thus, if the air carries pollutants, like sulphur dioxide from cities, the lichens receive those pollutants directly, without filtering through soil. One exceptionally obvious example of the susceptibility of lichens to airborne pollutants is described by Edward Duensing and A.B. Millmoss in their book, Backyard and Beyond. In Lapland, a remote land above the Arctic Circle, dangerous concentrations of radiation are found in the bodies of Laplanders, higher than in any other people. Why? Years ago, when the first atomic bombs were tested about the Pacific Ocean nearly 10,000 miles away, the prevailing air currents carried the radiation to remote Lapland. There, the abundant reindeer lichen, as any lichen would, directly absorbed the airborne radiation. In turn, the native reindeer, as always, consumed great quantities of the lichen, their principal food. Finally, the Lapland people, whose diet is predominantly reindeer meat, ingested the radiation-tainted meat. At each step along the food chain, the radiation concentrations multiplied, until in the body of a Laplander, the radiation concentration was 100 times what had been absorbed by a single lichen plant. Note: The Vermont Institute of Natural Science has three locations in Woodstock, Montpelier, and Manchester, Vermont. For information call (802) 457-2779 for programs in Woodstock and Manchester and (802) 229-6206 for Montpelier events. You can also visit www.vinsweb.org http://www.vinsweb.org/

VERMONT NATURE Fern Fanfare
Diana Lawrence Mg Intern Vermont Institute of Natural Science

(June 9, 2000) My sister, who lives in Toronto, came to visit us last month. Taking a tour of our backyard, she exclaimed over the multitude of ferns framing our property, their gorgeous green fronds swaying romantically in the breeze. "I think I just paid $15 to put two of those in my garden," she muttered enviously. In Vermont we are truly blessed with a fanfare of ferns. Ferns are an ancient family of plants and have been thriving for millions of years. The number of fern species in existence is estimated at between 9,000 and 15,000, for new species are still being discovered in unexplored tropical areas and many groups are poorly studied. Ferns thrive in a wide range of habitats around the globe. In Costa Rica alone, there are more than 900 species. Early fern fossils predate the beginning of the Mesozoic era, 360 million years ago. They are older than land animals and far older than the dinosaurs, and were thriving on Earth for 200 million years before flowering plants evolved. During the Carboniferous Period, (the age of ferns) they were the dominant form of vegetation. Their life cycle, dependent upon spores for dispersal, long preceded the seed-plant life cycle. During this era some fern-like groups actually evolved seeds (the seed ferns), which gave rise to the flowering plants we see today. Ferns love moist environments and thrive under Vermont's sheltering forest canopies and along creeks and streams. They belong to the vascular plant division Filicophyta, having leaves (fronds) with well-developed internal vein structures that promote the flow of water and nutrients. The young leaves normally unroll from a tight fiddlehead or crosier. Unlike other vascular plants (flowering plants and conifers) that reproduce from seed, ferns do it differently. They typically reproduce from spores and an intermediate plant stage called a gametophyte. Tucked under the fronds of most ferns is the sporangia or spore sack, which produces dust-like spores. They can be black, brown, reddish, yellow or even green but they are all very tiny. Spores are generally formed in groups of four and contain oil droplets and sometimes chlorophyll, in addition to their nucleus. Ferns disperse millions even billions of spores during their lifetime but these seldom land in environments with adequate light and moisture. When they do, the spores start to grow by cell division, developing into little green heart-shaped plants called gametophytes. The gametophyte is an independent plant with its own simple "root" system. It grows male organs and female organs on its underside. The male organs (antheridium) produce spermatazoids that swim through available moisture, such as a droplet of water, to the egg produced by the female organs (archegonium). The fertilized egg then begins to grow the sporophyte, which is the plant we know as a fern. Most ferns are found in the tropics where tree ferns--with their aboveground stems (rhizomes)-- may grow as high as 80 feet. Fronds vary greatly in size from 12 feet to 2 millimeters in length. Some ferns are vines; others float on the surface of ponds. Here in Vermont, common ferns include the Christmas fern (an evergreen fern), the marginal wood-fern, the beautiful lime loving maidenhair fern, the hay-scented fern (common in sunny fields), the cinnamon fern, the sensitive fern (susceptible to late frosts) and the ostrich fern, which is the source of edible fiddleheads.

BENEFITS OF BLACK AND CLEAR PLASTIC
Bill Guinness MG

Let's take black plastic first.Black plastic will heat up the soil to a certain degree. Remember black will reflect the sun somewhat. Black plastic will discourage weed growth and will eventually kill all plants that try to grow beneath it. Black plastic will also inhibit some soil borne insects. This type of plastic is good on mounded beds, tomatoes, peppers and flowers. It also retains moisture by keeping the soil shaded. Experiment in your own garden. Mulch on top of black plastic is good. The plastic should be replaced after a few years, as the plastic will deteriorate over a period of time.
Now let's take clear plastic. Clear plastic is not as long lasting as black plastic. It will deteriorate in one or two years. If you want to really warm up your soil clear plastic is the plastic to use. Clear plastic can be used to "solarize" your soil. This practice is seldom used because it needs about three weeks to be effective. It kills weeds, soil borne diseases and everything up to five inches deep. I am not going to get into how it is done. Weeds will grow under clear plastic. It is not as good at keeping moisture in the ground as black plastic.
Summary
1. Black plastic will heat up the soil.
2. Black plastic will kill weeds underneath.
3. Black plastic retains more moisture than clear plastic.
4. Clear plastic really warms up the soil especially in early spring.
5. Weeds will grow under clear plastic.
6. Clear plastic will not retain moisture. It is more apt to dry out the soil.
So you see, black and clear plastic each have a use in the garden. It is up to you to use them for your own purpose.

YOUR GARDENING EXPERIENCES & SOME THOUGHTS FROM MJ…
M. J. Sagi MG

Well the time is here again for Rutland to put out the Newsletter. I have been given a list of subjects MGs have suggested in the survey in the last newsletter and at the recent newsletter meeting, which might be contained in future Master Gardener Newsletters. You know, each one of us Master Gardeners specializes in something and that is why I joined the group. Because though I can read thousands of wordy published articles until I am blue in the face, somehow hearing information from someone just like me makes it easier to absorb and learn. By this I mean most of my gardening "training" has come from people trading information informally. And that is the key, I think - regular people who share and teach their love of gardening. My old friend Lorraine Guinness wasn't a trained horticulturist, but she knew more about perennials and vegetables than anyone I have ever met. And she started me slowly, sharing just a few plants, being careful not to overwhelm me. I remember she told me never to worry. The garden would take care of itself - that I would be rewarded with wonderful things in the spring, (a season of hope and renewal) if I would just get the courage up to begin. "Anybody", she said, "can become a gardener". Her garden spirit was infectious! She was a true Master Gardener. Her husband, Bill Guinness MG writes articles for the newsletter now, sharing years of his gardening expertise. You don't have to be a published author to pass along say….your knowledge of rose gardens to us. Your information is just the kind we are looking for. And if you want, we can take your information and write an article for you. MGs want to know about such things as moss cultivation, successes and failures and the reasons why, current problems and solutions, shade gardening, organic practices, tree ID and the list goes on…….. How about it?????? We need to hear from you. Tell us about what works for you. Tell us about your gardens. Book reviews? Specialty gardens? Wildlife damage control? Unusual plants? High wind problems? Tell us how you solved your planting problems. Disease resistant varieties of plants? Perennial care through 12 months?…………….send us an article! We're waiting……….. And from all of us on the Rutland Newsletter Team, “ Have a wonderful Holiday Season!!!”

HARVEST YOUR HERBS FOR THE HOLIDAYS AND BEYOND…
MJ Sagi MG, interviews Ellen Pfadt.

A couple of months ago, I went to a talk on herbs by Ellen Pfadt from "Thyme in Pittsford". She is an expert on herbs and their uses and runs a thriving business out of her home. After hearing her talk, I went straight home and started an herb garden!!!!! I asked if she would give me some hints on herbs for the holidays and here's her reply Use your herbs for a holiday wreath, and bring it inside. Wonderful scents will see you through the season. Thyme is the symbol of bravery she says and what harried housewife doesn't need bravery to get through the holiday season! Sage, blue white and pineapple also can be incorporated into the wreath along with statice and tansy. Balsam holds its needles best . Use lavender, mistletoe, wheat holly and evergreen, cedar cones and foliage. Boxwood stands for stoicism and works nicely. Dried hot peppers add color and Ellen says “if you are feeling a bit low chew on some and that will get your circulation going!!!” Rosemary is a love to be remembered, but remember to bring her in the house for the winter. She will take temps down to freezing but why put her through it? Reverse hardening off for herbs you winter inside. Put into a pot and leave outside for a few days and then place in a sunny window. Keep rosemary moist because she is a native of the Mediterranean. She doesn't like wet feet or dry feet. A wet Rosemary is a dead Rosemary. Put pebbles in a dish under the pot to keep humidity up. A cool room is great. Bring in your lemon verbena too, since it doesn't like the cold either. When you are through with your Christmas tree, cut boughs and place them over your lavender plants. This prevents "heaving" and since lavender is shallow rooted, it will heave out of the ground if not covered. Here is an excellent recipe for Herb Jelly to give as gifts for the holidays. Herb jellies may be made of one or a combination of herbs or in combination with apple jelly. Try both ways. Fresh herbs are preferred but dried ones may be used. Use half as much dried herbs as the fresh herb recipe calls for. Try any of these herbs: basil, lemon verbena, marjoram, mint, parsley, rosemary, sage, tarragon or thyme.

Herbal Jelly
1 Cup fresh herbs (leaves and stems) packed
2 1/2 Cups boiling water
4 1/2 Cups sugar
1/4 Cup lemon juice or vinegar
3 oz. Liquid pectin
Make an infusion by steeping herbs in boiling water for 20 minutes. Strain out herbs and discard. Add sugar and lemon juice to herb-flavored liquid. Heat until sugar dissolves. Bring mixture to boil and add pectin. Boil for one minute, stirring constantly. Remove from heat and skim. Place a few fresh herb leaves in each jelly glass. Pour and seal. Makes four 8 oz. glasses.

And finally, the holiday season can be a stressful time. Here is Ellen's recipe for Herbal Tea. Take time out to relax and have a cup. First, harvest your herbs before the frost. Put into a plastic bag, tie shut and put in a cool place. They will keep nicely for weeks. No need to dry or freeze.

Herbal Teas
Harvest about a cup of fresh leaves. Rinse in cold water and shake dry. Place in teapot. Pour boiling water over fresh leaves. Cover teapot with a cozy or kitchen towel and allow to steep for 10 minutes to allow the flavor and nutrients of the herbs to be released. Pour tea and enjoy. Adjust amount of herb to suit your personal taste. ENJOY!

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